Comparing demographics of current smokers with and without motivation to change their smoking behaviors
Demographics
With motivation
(N = 4)
Mean (SD) or n (%)
Without motivation
(N = 10)
Mean (SD) or n (%)
P-values
Age (years)
45.00 (3.92)
34.60 (10.83)
0.092
BMI
25.17 (4.18)
24.84 (4.22)
0.896
Marital status
0.689
Single
3 (75.0)
7 (70.0)
Married
1 (25.0)
3 (30.0)
Education
0.670
≤ High school
1 (25.0)
2 (20.0)
> High school
3 (75.0)
8 (80.0)
Employment
N/A
No
4 (100.0)
10 (100.0)
Yes
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
Age of smoking onset (years)
16.75 (0.96)
15.70 (2.50)
0.438
Duration of smoking (years)
28.25 (4.65)
18.90 (11.38)
0.144
Level of nicotine dependence
4.75 (0.96)
1.70 (1.34)
0.001*
*P < 0.01; N/A: not applicable
Declarations
Author contributions
RK: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. SS: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft. AC: Investigation. WS: Investigation, Validation, Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Chulalongkorn University Faculty of Medicine (No. 273/59). The study was carried out according to the ethical standards laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki of 1964 and its subsequent amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Consent to participate
Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants.
Consent to publication
Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Funding
This work was partially supported by the US National Institute of Health [R01 DA037974] and US National Institute of Health/Department of Health and Human Services [D43 TW009087/TW/FIC]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Apodaca TR, Longabaugh R. Mechanisms of change in motivational interviewing: a review and preliminary evaluation of the evidence.Addiction. 2009;104:705–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
DiClemente CC, Corno CM, Graydon MM, Wiprovnick AE, Knoblach DJ. Motivational interviewing, enhancement, and brief interventions over the last decade: a review of reviews of efficacy and effectiveness.Psychol Addict Behav. 2017;31:862–87. [DOI] [PubMed]
Prochaska JO, Velicer WF. The transtheoretical model of health behavior change.Am J Health Promot. 1997;12:38–48. [DOI] [PubMed]
Carey KB, Purnine DM, Maisto SA, Carey MP. Correlates of stages of change for substance abuse among psychiatric outpatients.Psychol Addict Behav. 2002;16:283–9. [PubMed]
Zafeiridou M, Hopkinson NS, Voulvoulis N. Cigarette smoking: an assessment of tobacco’s global environmental footprint across its entire supply chain.Environ Sci Technol. 2018;52:8087–94. [DOI] [PubMed]
Sharma R, Harlev A, Agarwal A, Esteves SC. Cigarette smoking and semen quality: a new meta-analysis examining the effect of the 2010 World Health Organization laboratory methods for the examination of human semen.Eur Urol. 2016;70:635–45. [DOI] [PubMed]
Cao S, Yin X, Wang Y, Zhou H, Song F, Lu Z. Smoking and risk of erectile dysfunction: systematic review of observational studies with meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2013;8:e60443. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Gao X, Zhang Y, Breitling LP, Brenner H. Tobacco smoking and methylation of genes related to lung cancer development.Oncotarget. 2016;7:59017–28. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Hackshaw A, Morris JK, Boniface S, Tang JL, Milenković D. Low cigarette consumption and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: meta-analysis of 141 cohort studies in 55 study reports.BMJ. 2018;360:j5855. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Pan A, Wang Y, Talaei M, Hu FB, Wu T. Relation of active, passive, and quitting smoking with incident type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015;3:958–67. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Leite FRM, Nascimento GG, Scheutz F, López R. Effect of smoking on periodontitis: a systematic review and meta-regression.Am J Prev Med. 2018;54:831–41. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kalayasiri R, Supcharoen W, Ouiyanukoon P. Association between secondhand smoke exposure and quality of life in pregnant women and postpartum women and the consequences on the newborns.Qual Life Res. 2018;27:905–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Thurgood SL, McNeill A, Clark-Carter D, Brose LS. A systematic review of smoking cessation interventions for adults in substance abuse treatment or recovery.Nicotine Tob Res. 2016;18:993–1001. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Lindson N, Klemperer E, Hong B, Ordóñez-Mena JM, Aveyard P. Smoking reduction interventions for smoking cessation.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;9:CD01318. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Limsanon T, Kalayasiri R. Preliminary effects of progressive muscle relaxation on cigarette craving and withdrawal symptoms in experienced smokers in acute cigarette abstinence: a randomized controlled trial.Behav Ther. 2015;46:166–76. [DOI] [PubMed]
Williams RM, Cordon M, Eyestone E, Smith L, Luta G, McKee BJ, et al.; Lung Screening, TobaccoHealth Trial. Improved motivation and readiness to quit shortly after lung cancer screening: evidence for a teachable moment.Cancer. 2022;128:1976–86. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Khuder SA, Dayal HH, Mutgi AB. Age at smoking onset and its effect on smoking cessation.Addict Behav. 1999;24:673–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Foulds J, Gandhi KK, Steinberg MB, Richardson DL, Williams JM, Burke MV, et al. Factors associated with quitting smoking at a tobacco dependence treatment clinic.Am J Health Behav. 2006;30:400–12. [DOI] [PubMed]
Vangeli E, Stapleton J, Smit ES, Borland R, West R. Predictors of attempts to stop smoking and their success in adult general population samples: a systematic review.Addiction. 2011;106:2110–21. [DOI] [PubMed]
Broms U, Silventoinen K, Lahelma E, Koskenvuo M, Kaprio J. Smoking cessation by socioeconomic status and marital status: the contribution of smoking behavior and family background.Nicotine Tob Res. 2004;6:447–55. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wetter DW, Cofta-Gunn L, Irvin JE, Fouladi RT, Wright K, Daza P, et al. What accounts for the association of education and smoking cessation?Prev Med. 2005;40:452–60. [DOI] [PubMed]
Falba T, Teng HM, Sindelar JL, Gallo WT. The effect of involuntary job loss on smoking intensity and relapse.Addiction. 2005;100:1330–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tucker JS, Ellickson PL, Orlando M, Klein DJ. Predictors of attempted quitting and cessation among young adult smokers.Prev Med. 2005;41:554–61. [DOI] [PubMed]
Addicott MA, Sweitzer MM, Froeliger B, Rose JE, McClernon FJ. Increased functional connectivity in an insula-based network is associated with improved smoking cessation outcomes.Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015;40:2648–56. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Li X, Hartwell KJ, Borckardt J, Prisciandaro JJ, Saladin ME, Morgan PS, et al. Volitional reduction of anterior cingulate cortex activity produces decreased cue craving in smoking cessation: a preliminary real-time fMRI study.Addict Biol. 2013;18:739–48. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Janes AC, Frederick B, Richardt S, Burbridge C, Merlo-Pich E, Renshaw PF, et al. Brain fMRI reactivity to smoking-related images before and during extended smoking abstinence.Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;17:365–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Lawn W, Mithchener L, Freeman TP, Benattayallah A, Bisby JA, Wall MB, et al. Value-based decision-making of cigarette and nondrug rewards in dependent and occasional cigarette smokers: an FMRI study.Addict Biol. 2020;25:e12802. [DOI] [PubMed]
Piñeiro B, López-Durán A, Del Río EF, Martínez Ú, Brandon TH, Becoña E. Motivation to quit as a predictor of smoking cessation and abstinence maintenance among treated Spanish smokers.Addict Behav. 2016;53:40–5. [DOI] [PubMed]
Srisuklorm S, Kalayasiri R. Motivation to change smoking behavior of smokers at the Check - Up Clinic, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital.Chula Med Bull. 2019;1:61–9. Thai.
Malison RT, Kalayasiri R, Sanichwankul K, Sughondhabirom A, Mutirangura A, Pittman B, et al. Inter-rater reliability and concurrent validity of DSM-IV opioid dependence in a Hmong isolate using the Thai version of the Semi-Structured Assessment for Drug Dependence and Alcoholism (SSADDA).Addict Behav. 2011;36:156–60. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sheehan DV, Lecrubier Y, Sheehan KH, Amorim P, Janavs J, Weiller E, et al. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10.J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59:22–33. [PubMed]
Kalayasiri R, Verachai V, Gelernter J, Mutirangura A, Malison RT. Clinical features of methamphetamine-induced paranoia and preliminary genetic association with DBH-1021C→T in a Thai treatment cohort.Addiction. 2014;109:965–76. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Fagerström KO. Measuring degree of physical dependence to tobacco smoking with reference to individualization of treatment.Addict Behav. 1978;3:235–41. [DOI] [PubMed]
Miller WR, Tonigan JS. Assessing drinkers’ motivation for change: the Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scale (SOCRATES).Psychol Addict Behav. 1996;10:81–9. [DOI]
Kviz FJ, Clark MA, Crittenden KS, Freels S, Warnecke RB. Age and readiness to quit smoking.Prev Med. 1994;23:211–22. [DOI] [PubMed]
Mplouchou P, Goudouva E, Apostolidou E, Gourgoulianis K, Chatzoglou C. Factors affecting the motivation of smokers to quit smoking.Intersci Health Care. 2011;3:113. Greek.
Daoud N, Hayek S, Sheikh Muhammad A, Abu-Saad K, Osman A, Thrasher JF, et al. Stages of change of the readiness to quit smoking among a random sample of minority Arab male smokers in Israel.BMC Public Health. 2015;15:672. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
de Granda-Orive JI, Peña-Miguel T, Jiménez-Ruiz DC, Solano-Reina DS, Martínez-Albiach JM, Escobar-Sacristán J, et al. Distribution of stages of change in smoking behavior in a group of young smokers (transtheoretical model).Mil Med. 2004;169:972–5. [DOI] [PubMed]
Stockings E, Bowman J, McElwaine K, Baker A, Terry M, Clancy R, et al. Readiness to quit smoking and quit attempts among Australian mental health inpatients.Nicotine Tob Res. 2013;15:942–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Solty H, Crockford D, White WD, Currie S. Cigarette smoking, nicotine dependence, and motivation for smoking cessation in psychiatric inpatients.Can J Psychiatry. 2009;54:36–45. [DOI] [PubMed]
Carosella AM, Ossip-Klein DJ, Owens CA. Smoking attitudes, beliefs, and readiness to change among acute and long term care inpatients with psychiatric diagnoses.Addict Behav. 1999;24:331–44. [DOI] [PubMed]
Esterberg ML, Compton MT. Smoking behavior in persons with a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder: a qualitative investigation of the transtheoretical model.Soc Sci Med. 2005;61:293–303. [DOI] [PubMed]
Swarbrick MA, Cook JA, Razzano LA, Jonikas JA, Gao N, Williams J, et al. Correlates of current smoking among adults served by the public mental health system.J Dual Diagn. 2017;13:82–90. [DOI] [PubMed]
Tulloch HE, Pipe AL, Clyde MJ, Reid RD, Els C. The quit experience and concerns of smokers with psychiatric illness.Am J Prev Med. 2016;50:709–18. [DOI] [PubMed]
Veldman K, Bültmann U, Stewart RE, Ormel J, Verhulst FC, Reijneveld SA. Mental health problems and educational attainment in adolescence: 9-year follow-up of the TRAILS study.PLoS One. 2014;9:e101751. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Siru R, Hulse GK, Tait RJ. Assessing motivation to quit smoking in people with mental illness: a review.Addiction. 2009;104:719–33. [DOI] [PubMed]
Siru R, Hulse GK, Khan RJ, Tait RJ. Motivation to quit smoking among hospitalised individuals with and without mental health disorders.Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2010;44:640–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Sciamanna CN, Hoch JS, Duke GC, Fogle MN, Ford DE. Comparison of five measures of motivation to quit smoking among a sample of hospitalized smokers.J Gen Intern Med. 2000;15:16–23. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Leem AY, Han CH, Ahn CM, Lee SH, Kim JY, Chun EM, et al.; Korean Smoking Cessation Study Group. Factors associated with stage of change in smoker in relation to smoking cessation based on the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey II-V.PLoS One. 2017;12:e0176294. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ekpreechakul T, Jitpong W, Verachai V, Kalayasiri R. Rate of consultation with professionals and relatives about alcohol drinking problem in patients with alcohol dependence.J Psychiatr Assoc Thailand. 2010;55:269–78. Thai.
Chawla G, Kansal AP, Chopra V, Kaur K, Kumar N. Nicotine dependence and readiness to quit smoking in the North Indian population.Eur Respir J. 2014;44:4173.
Rohsenow DJ, Martin RA, Tidey JW, Monti PM, Colby SM. Comparison of the cigarette dependence scale with four other measures of nicotine involvement: correlations with smoking history and smoking treatment outcome in smokers with substance use disorders.Addict Behav. 2013;38:2409–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Lee JH, Lim Y, Wiederhold BK, Graham SJ. A functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) study of cue-induced smoking craving in virtual environments.Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2005;30:195–204. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kolb B, Whishaw IQ. An Introduction to brain and behavior. 4th ed. New York: Worth Publishers; 2012.
Goldberg II, Harel M, Malach R. When the brain loses its self: prefrontal inactivation during sensorimotor processing.Neuron. 2006;50:329–39. [DOI] [PubMed]
Talati A, Hirsch J. Functional specialization within the medial frontal gyrus for perceptual go/no-go decisions based on “what,” “when,” and “where” related information: an fMRI study.J Cogn Neurosci. 2005;17:981–93. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hu X, Gao W, Chen Z, Yan Z, Luo W, Rao Z, et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging study of olfaction stimulated by cigarette smell.Funct Mol Med Imaging. 2014;3:382–7. Chinese.
Prisciandaro JJ, McRae-Clark AL, Myrick H, Henderson S, Brady KT. Brain activation to cocaine cues and motivation/treatment status.Addict Biol. 2014;19:240–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Taheri M, Irandoust K, Noorian F, Bagherpour F. The effect of aerobic exercise program on cholesterol, blood lipids and cigarette withdrawal behavior of smokers.Acta Medica Mediterr. 2017;33:597–600. [DOI]
Roberts V, Maddison R, Simpson C, Bullen C, Prapavessis H. The acute effects of exercise on cigarette cravings, withdrawal symptoms, affect, and smoking behaviour: systematic review update and meta-analysis.Psychopharmacology. 2012;222:1–15. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hiscock R, Bauld L, Amos A, Fidler JA, Munafò M. Socioeconomic status and smoking: a review.Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2012;1248:107–23. [DOI] [PubMed]
Baker TB, Brandon TH, Chassin L. Motivational influences on cigarette smoking.Annu Rev Psychol. 2004;55:463–91. [DOI] [PubMed]
