Table Info

Table 2.

Examples of preclinical studies, clinical trials, and approved cancer vaccines

Disease	Vector	Findings
Breast	VEE-HER-2	Prevention of tumor growth and death in mice [89]
	VEE-HER-2	Good tolerance, PR in 1 patient, SD in 2 patients in phase I [90]
	VEE-HER2	Combination with pembrolizumab (ICB) in phase II [88]
Cervical	SFV-E6/E7	Tumor regression or complete eradication in mice [91]
Cervical	SFV-E6/E7 (Vvax001)	Good tolerability, HPV-specific responses in phase I [92]
Colon	VEE-CEA	Anti-tumor activity in mice with MC38-CEA tumors [93]
Colon	VEE-CEA	Immune responses, prolonged survival in phase I patients [94]
Ovarian	MV	Anti-tumor activity in mice with ovarian tumor xenografts [95]
Ovarian	MV	SD in 67% of RROC patients in phase I [96]
Prostate	VEE-PSMA	Robust PSMA-specific immune responses in mice [97]
Prostate	VEE-PSMA	No clinical changes in CRPC patients in phase I [98]
Pancreatic	VEE-CEA	CEA-specific T-cell responses in transgenic mice [99]
Pancreatic	VEE-CEA	Ab and T-cell responses, prolonged survival in phase I [99]
Various	ChAd + VEE neoAg	Clinical benefits in cancer patients in phase I/II [100]

CEA: carcinoembryonic antigen; ChAd: chimpanzee Ad; CRPC: castrate-resistant prostate cancer; E6/E7: human papillomavirus envelope proteins 6 and 7; HER-2: human epidermal growth factor receptor 2; HPV: human papillomavirus; ICB: immune checkpoint blockade; MC38: mouse colon cancer cell; neoAg: neo-antigen; PSMA: prostate-specific membrane antigen; RROC: refractory recurrent ovarian cancer

Declarations

Author contributions

KL is the sole author of the manuscript and contributed to: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.

Conflicts of interest

The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

References

Delrue I, Verzele D, Madder A, Nauwynck HJ. Inactivated virus vaccines from chemistry to prophylaxis: merits, risks and challenges. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2012;11:695–719. [DOI] [PubMed]

Chen WH, Du L, Chag SM, Ma C, Tricoche N, Tao X, et al. Yeast-expressed recombinant protein of the receptor-binding domain in SARS-CoV spike protein with deglycosylated forms as a SARS vaccine candidate. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2014;10:648–58. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Schott JW, Galla M, Godinho T, Baum C, Schambach A. Viral and non-viral approaches for transient delivery of mRNA and proteins. Curr Gene Ther. 2011;11:382–98. [DOI] [PubMed]

Bok K, Sitar S, Graham BS, Mascola JR. Accelerated COVID-19 vaccine development: milestones, lessons, and prospects. Immunity. 2021;54:1636–51. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Sasso E, D’Alise AM, Zambrano N, Scarselli E, Folgori A, Nicosia A. New viral vectors for infectious diseases and cancer. Semin Immunol. 2020;50:101430. [DOI] [PubMed]

Liu CC, Yang H, Zhang R, Zhao JJ, Hao DJ. Tumour-associated antigens and their anti-cancer applications. Eur J Cancer Care (Engl). 2017;26:e12446. [DOI] [PubMed]

Zajakina A, Spunde K, Lundstrom K. Application of alphaviral vectors for immunomodulation in cancer therapy. Curr Pharm Des. 2017;23:4906–32. [DOI] [PubMed]

Zarogoulidis P, Darwiche K, Sakkas A, Yarmus L, Huang H, Li Q, et al. Suicide gene therapy for cancer – current strategies. J Genet Syndr Gene Ther. 2013;4:16849. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Lundstrom K. Viral vectors in gene therapy: Where do we stand in 2023? Viruses. 2023;15:698. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

10.

Ramasamy MN, Minassian AM, Ewer KJ, Flaxman AL, Folegatti PM, Owens DR, et al.; Oxford COVID Vaccine Trial Group. Safety and immunogenicity of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine administered in a prime-boost regimen in young and old adults (COV002): a single-blind, randomised, controlled, phase 2/3 trial. Lancet. 2021;396:1979–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

11.

Stephenson KE, Le Gars M, Sadoff J, de Groot AM, Heerwegh D, Truyers C, et al. Immunogenicity of the Ad26.COV2.S vaccine for COVID-19. JAMA. 2021;325:1535–44. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

12.

Zhu FC, Guan XH, Li YH, Huang JY, Jiang T, Hou LH, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of a recombinant adenovirus type-5-vectored COVID-19 vaccine in healthy adults aged 18 years or older: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2020;396:479–88. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

13.

Lamb YN. BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine: first approval. Drugs. 2021;81:495–501. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

14.

Vasireddy D, Atluri P, Malayala SV, Vanaparthy R, Mohan G. Review of COVID-19 vaccines approved in the United States of America for emergency use. J Clin Med Res. 2021;13:204–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

15.

Lundstrom K. Viral vectors for COVID-19 vaccine development. Viruses. 2021;13:317. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

16.

Nagasato M, Rin Y, Yamamoto Y, Henmi M, Hiraoka N, Chiwaki F, et al. A tumor-targeting adenovirus with high gene-transduction efficiency for primary pancreatic cancer and ascites cells. Anticancer Res. 2017;37:3599–605. [DOI] [PubMed]

17.

Eissa IR, Naoe Y, Bustos-Villalobos I, Ichinose T, Tanaka M, Zhiwen W, et al. Genomic signature of the natural oncolytic herpes simplex virus HF10 and its therapeutic role in preclinical and clinical trials. Front Oncol. 2017;7:149. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

18.

Hirooka Y, Kasuya H, Ishikawa T, Kawashima H, Ohno E, Villalobos IB, et al. A phase I clinical trial of EUS-guided intratumoral injection of the oncolytic virus, HF10 for unresectable locally advanced pancreatic cancer. BMC Cancer. 2018;18:596. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Cloughesy TF, Landolfi J, Hogan DJ, Bloomfield S, Carter B, Chen CC, et al. Phase 1 trial of vocimagene amiretrorepvec and 5-fluorocytosine for recurrent high-grade glioma. Sci Transl Med. 2016;8:341ra75. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

20.

Tocagen reports results of Toca 5 phase 3 trial in recurrent brain cancer [Internet]. San Diego (CA): Tocagen; c2019 [cited 2023 Mar 1]. Available from: https://bit.ly/2lPm19v

21.

Johnson DB, Puzanov I, Kelley MC. Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC) for the treatment of advanced melanoma. Immunotherapy. 2015;7:611–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

22.

Rehman H, Silk AW, Kane MP, Kaufman HL. Into the clinic: talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), a first-in-class intratumoral oncolytic viral therapy. J Immunother Cancer. 2016;4:53. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

23.

Lundstrom K. Self-replicating RNA viruses for vaccine development against infectious diseases and cancer. Vaccines (Basel). 2021;9:1187. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

24.

Lundstrom K. Applications of self-replicating RNA. In: Aranda F, Berraondo P, Galluzzi L, editors. International review of cell and molecular biology. Cambridge: Academic Press; 2022. pp. 97–157. [DOI] [PubMed]

25.

Strauss JH, Strauss EG. The alphaviruses: gene expression, replication, and evolution. Microbiol Rev. 1994;58:491–562. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

26.

Pugachev KV, Guirakhoo F, Trent DW, Monath TP. Traditional and novel approaches to flavivirus vaccines. Int J Parasitol. 2003;33:567–82. [DOI] [PubMed]

27.

Gotoh B, Komatsu T, Takeuchi K, Yokoo J. Paramyxovirus strategies for evading the interferon response. Rev Med Virol. 2002;12:337–57. [DOI] [PubMed]

28.

Lyles DS, Rupprecht CE. Rhabdoviridae. In: Knipe DM, Howley PM, editors. Fields Virology, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.

29.

Frolov I, Hoffman TA, Pragal BM, Dryga SA, Huang HV, Schlesinger S, et al. Alphavirus-based expression vectors: strategies and applications. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996;93:11371–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

30.

Liljestöm P, Garoff H. A new generation of animal cell expression vectors based on the Semliki Forest virus replicon. Nat Biotechnol. 1991;9:1356–61. [DOI] [PubMed]

31.

Xiong C, Levis R, Shen P, Schlesinger S, Rice CM, Huang HV. Sindbis virus: an efficient, broad host range vector for gene expression in animal cells. Science. 1989;243:1188–91. [DOI] [PubMed]

32.

Davis NL, Willis LV, Smith JF, Johnston RF. In vitro synthesis of infectious venezuelan equine encephalitis virus RNA from a cDNA clone: analysis of a viable deletion mutant. Virology. 1989;171:189–204. [DOI] [PubMed]

33.

White CL, Thomson M, Dimmock NJ. Deletion analysis of a defective interfering Semliki Forest virus RNA genome defines a region in the nsP2 sequence that is required for efficient packaging of the genome into virus particles. J Virol. 1998;72:4320–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

34.

Kim DY, Firth AE, Atasheva S, Frolova EI, Frolov I. Conservation of a packaging signal and the viral genome RNA packaging mechanism in alphavirus evolution. J Virol. 2011;85:8022–36. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

35.

Wadhwa A, Aljabbari A, Lokras A, Foged C, Thakur A. Opportunities and challenges in the delivery of mRNA-based vaccines. Pharmaceutics. 2020;12:102. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

36.

Raouane M, Desmaële D, Urbinati G, Massaad-Massade L, Couvreur P. Lipid conjugated oligonucleotides: a useful strategy for delivery. Bioconjug Chem. 2012;23:1091–104. [DOI] [PubMed]

37.

DiCiommo DP, Bremner R. Rapid, high level protein production using DNA-based Semliki Forest virus vectors. J Biol Chem. 1998;273:18060–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

38.

Bai H, Lester GMS, Petishnok LC, Dean DA. Cytoplasmic transport and nuclear import of plasmid DNA. Biosci Rep. 2017;37:BSR20160616. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

39.

Muramatsu T, Nakamura A, Park HM. In vivo electroporation: a powerful and convenient means of nonviral gene transfer to tissues of living animals (review). Int J Mol Med. 1998;1:55–117. [DOI] [PubMed]

40.

Mahvi DM, Sheehy MJ, Yang NS. DNA cancer vaccines: a gene gun approach. Immunol Cell Biol. 1997;75:456–60. [DOI] [PubMed]

41.

Lundstrom K, Boulikas T. Viral and non-viral vectors in gene therapy: technology development and clinical trials. Technol Cancer Res Treat. 2003;2:471–85. [DOI] [PubMed]

42.

Sunshine JC, Bishop CJ, Green JJ. Advances in polymeric and inorganic vectors for nonviral nucleic acid delivery. Ther Deliv. 2011;2:493–521. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

43.

Xu Y, Liang W, Qiu Y, Cespi M, Palmieri GF, Mason AJ, et al. Incorporation of a nuclear localization signal in pH responsive LAH4-L1 peptide enhances transfection and nuclear uptake of plasmid DNA. Mol Pharm. 2016;13:3141–52. [DOI] [PubMed]

44.

Pijlman GP, Suhrbier A, Khromykh AA. Kunjin virus replicons: an RNA-based, non-cytopathic viral vector system for protein production, vaccine and gene therapy applications. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2006;6:135–45. [DOI] [PubMed]

45.

de Felipe P. Skipping the co-expression problem: the new 2A “CHYSEL” technology. Genet Vaccines Ther. 2004;2:13. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

46.

Khromykh AA, Varnavski AN, Westaway EG. Encapsidation of the flavivirus Kunjin replicon RNA by using a complementation system providing Kunjin virus structural proteins in trans. J Virol. 1998;72:5967–77. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

47.

Shi PY, Tilgner M, Lo MK. Construction and characterization of subgenomic replicons of New York strain of West Nile virus. Virology. 2002;296:219–33. [DOI] [PubMed]

48.

Molenkamp R, Kooi EA, Lucassen MA, Greve S, Thijssen JC, Spaan WJ, et al. Yellow fever virus replicons as an expression system for hepatitis C virus structural proteins. J Virol. 2003;77:1644–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

49.

Jones M, Davidson A, Hibbert L, Gruenwald P, Schlaak J, Ball S, et al. Dengue virus inhibits alpha interferon signaling by reducing STAT2 expression. J Virol. 2005;79:5414–20. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

50.

Gehrke R, Ecker M, Aberle SW, Allison SL, Heinz FX, Mandl CW. Incorporation of tick-borne encephalitis virus replicons into virus-like particles by a packaging cell line. J Virol. 2003;77:8924–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

51.

Kuadkitkan A, Ramphan S, Worawichawong S, Sornjai W, Wikan N, Smith DR. Production of Zika virus virus-like particles. In: Pfeifer BA, Hill A, editors. Vaccine delivery technology. New York: Humana; 2021. pp. 183–203. [DOI] [PubMed]

52.

Fan ZC, Dennis JC, Bird RC. Bovine viral diarrhea virus is a suitable viral vector for stable expression of heterologous gene when inserted in between N^pro and C genes. Virus Res. 2008;138:97–104. [DOI] [PubMed]

53.

Stettler P, Devos R, Moser C, Tratschin JD, Hofmann MA. Establishment and application of bicistronic classical swine fever virus genomes for foreign gene expression and complementation of E2 deletion mutants. Virus Res. 2002;85:173–85. [DOI] [PubMed]

54.

Schnell MJ, Buonocore L, Kretzschmar E, Johnson E, Rose JK. Foreign glycoproteins expressed from recombinant vesicular stomatitis viruses are incorporated efficiently into virus particles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996;93:11359–65. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

55.

Tani H, Morikawa S, Matsuura Y. Development and applications of VSV vectors based on cell tropism. Front Microbiol. 2012;2:272. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

56.

Pfaller CK, Cattaneo R, Schnell MJ. Reverse genetics of Mononegavirales: How they work, new vaccines, and new cancer therapeutics. Virology. 2015;479–80:331–44. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

57.

Harty RN, Brown ME, Hayes FP, Wright NT, Schnell MJ. Vaccinia virus-free recovery of vesicular stomatitis virus. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol. 2001;3:513–7. [PubMed]

58.

Hong SK, Jung YT, Park SW, Paik SY. Inducible vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) L cell line for packaging of recombinant VSV. Virus Genes. 2005;31:195–201. [DOI] [PubMed]

59.

Osakada F, Callaway EM. Design and generation of recombinant rabies virus vectors. Nat Protoc. 2013;8:1583–601. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

60.

Ito N, Takayama-Ito M, Yamada K, Hosokawa J, Sugiyama M, Minamoto N. Improved recovery of rabies virus from cloned cDNA using a vaccinia virus-free reverse genetics system. Microbiol Immunol. 2003;47:613–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

61.

Singh M, Cattaneo R, Billeter MA. A recombinant measles virus expressing hepatitis B virus surface antigen induces humoral immune responses in genetically modified mice. J Virol. 1999;73:4823–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

62.

Radecke F, Spielhofer P, Schneider H, Kaelin K, Huber M, Dötsch C, et al. Rescue of measles viruses from cloned DNA. EMBO J. 1995;14:5773–84. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

63.

Rossi SL, Comer JE, Wang E, Azar SR, Lawrence WS, Plante JA, et al. Immunogenicity and efficacy of a measles virus-vectored chikungunya vaccine in nonhuman primates. J Infect Dis. 2019;220:735–42. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

64.

Ramsauer K, Schwameis M, Firbas C, Müllner M, Putnak RJ, Thomas SJ, et al. Immunogenicity, safety, and tolerability of a recombinant measles-virus-based chikungunya vaccine: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, active-comparator, first-in-man trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:519–27. [DOI] [PubMed]

65.

Reisinger EC, Tschismarov R, Beubler E, Wiedermann U, Firbas C, Loebermann M, et al. Immunogenicity, safety, and tolerability of the measles-vectored chikungunya virus vaccine MV-CHIK: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled and active-controlled phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2018;392:2718–27. [DOI] [PubMed]

66.

Marzi A, Robertson SJ, Haddock E, Feldmann F, Hanley PW, Scott DP, et al. VSV-EBOV rapidly protects macaques against infection with the 2014/15 Ebola virus outbreak strain. Science. 2015;349:739–42. [DOI] [PubMed]

67.

Geisbert TW, Feldmann H. Recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccines against Ebola and Marburg virus infections. J Infect Dis. 2011;204:S1075–81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

68.

Clarke DK, Xu R, Matassov D, Latham TE, Ota-Setlik A, Gerardi CS, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a highly attenuated rVSVN4CT1-EBOVGP1 Ebola virus vaccine: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1 clinical trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20:455–66. [DOI] [PubMed]

69.

Henao-Restrepo AM, Longini IM, Egger M, Dean NE, Edmunds WJ, Camacho A, et al. Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV-vectored vaccine expressing Ebola surface glycoprotein: interim results from the Guinea ring vaccination cluster-randomised trial. Lancet. 2015;386:857–66. [DOI] [PubMed]

70.

Henao‐Restrepo AM, Camacho A, Longini IM, Watson CH, Edmunds WJ, Egger M, et al. Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV‐vectored vaccine in preventing Ebola virus disease: final results from the Guinea ring vaccination, open‐label, cluster‐randomised trial (Ebola Ça Suffit!). Lancet. 2017;389:505–18. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

71.

Ollmann Saphire E. A vaccine against Ebola virus. Cell. 2020;181:6. [DOI] [PubMed]

72.

Nürnberger C, Bodmer BS, Fiedler AH, Gabriel G, Mühlebach MD. A measles virus-based vaccine candidate mediates protection against Zika virus in an allogeneic mouse pregnancy model. J Virol. 2019;93:e01485–18. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

73.

Zika-vaccine dose finding study regarding safety, immunogenicity and tolerability (V186-001) [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2023 Mar 8]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02996890

74.

Kurup D, Wirblich C, Lambert R, Diba LZ, Leiby BE, Schnell MJ. Measles-based Zika vaccine induces long-term immunity and requires NS1 antibodies to protect the female reproductive tract. NPJ Vaccines. 2022;7:43. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

75.

Safety and immunogenicity of a novel vaccine formulation MV-ZIKA-RSP (V187-001) (MV-ZIKA-RSP) [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2023 Mar 8]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04033068

76.

Hörner C, Schürmann C, Auste A, Ebenig A, Muraleedharan S, Dinnon KH III, et al. A highly immunogenic and effective measles virus-based Th1-biased COVID-19 vaccine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117:32657–66. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

77.

Clinical trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of the COVID-19 vaccine (COVID-19-101) [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2023 Mar 8]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04497298

78.

Merck discontinues development of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 vaccine candidates; continues development of two investigational therapeutic candidates [Internet]. Rahway (NJ): Merck & Co.; c2023 [cited 2023 Mar 8]. Available from: https://www.merck.com/news/merck-discontinues-development-of-sars-cov-2-covid-19-vaccine-candidates-continues-development-of-two-investigational-therapeutic-candidates/

79.

Case JB, Rothlauf PW, Chen RE, Kafai NM, Fox JM, Smith BK, et al. Replication-competent vesicular stomatitis virus vaccine vector protects against SARS-CoV-2-mediated pathogenesis in mice. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;28:465–74, e1–4. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

80.

Dose ranging trial to assess safety and immunogenicity of V590 (COVID-19 vaccine) in healthy adults (V590-001) [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2023 Mar 8]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04569786

81.

Merck and IAVI discontinue development of COVID-19 vaccine candidate V590 [Internet]. New York (NY): International AIDS Vaccine Initiative; c2023 [cited 2023 Mar 8]. Available from: https://www.iavi.org/news-resources/press-releases/2021/merck-and-iavi-discontinue-development-of-covid-19-vaccine-candidate-v590

82.

Yahalom-Ronen Y, Tamir H, Melamed S, Politi B, Shifman O, Achdout H, et al. A single dose of recombinant VSV-∆G-spike vaccine provides protection against SARS-CoV-2 challenge. Nat Commun. 2020;11:6402. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

83.

Evaluate the safety, immunogenicity and potential efficacy of an rVSV-SARS-CoV-2-S vaccine [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): U.S. National Library of Medicine; [cited 2023 Mar 9]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04608305

84.

Ly HH, Daniel S, Soriano SKV, Kis Z, Blakney AK. Optimization of lipid nanoparticles for saRNA expression and cellular activation using a design-of-experiment approach. Mol Pharm. 2022;19:1892–905. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

85.

Tregoning JS, Stirling DC, Wang Z, Flight KE, Brown JC, Blakney AK, et al. Formulation, inflammation, and RNA sensing impact the immunogenicity of self-amplifying RNA vaccines. Mol Ther Nucleic Acids. 2023;31:29–42. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

86.

McKay PF, Hu K, Blakney AK, Samnuan K, Brown JC, Penn R, et al. Self-amplifying RNA SARS-CoV-2 lipid nanoparticle vaccine candidate induces high neutralizing antibodies in mice. Nat Commun. 2020;11:3523. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

87.

Pollock KM, Cheeseman HM, Szubert AJ, Libri V, Boffito M, Owen D, et al.; COVAC1 study Group. Safety and immunogenicity of a self-amplifying RNA vaccine against COVID-19: COVAC1, a phase I, dose-ranging trial. EClinicalMedicine. 2022;44:101262. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

88.

Morse MA, Crosby EJ, Force J, Osada T, Hobeika AC, Hartman ZC, et al. Clinical trials of self-replicating RNA-based cancer vaccines. Cancer Geen Ther. 2023;30:803–11. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

89.

Wang X, Wang JP, Maughan MF, Lachman LB. Alphavirus replicon particles containing the gene for HER2/neu inhibit breast cancer growth and tumorigenesis. Breast Cancer Res. 2004;7:R145. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

90.

Crosby EJ, Gwin W, Blackwell K, Marcom PK, Chang S, Maecker HT, et al. Vaccine-induced memory CD8⁺ T cells provide clinical benefit in HER2 expressing breast cancer: a mouse to human translational study. Clin Cancer Res. 2019;25:2725–36. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

91.

Daemen T, Riezebos-Brilman A, Bungener L, Regts J, Dontje B, Wilschut J. Eradication of established HPV16-transformed tumours after immunisation with recombinant Semliki Forest virus expressing a fusion protein of E6 and E7. Vaccine. 2003;21:1082–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

92.

Komdeur FL, Singh A, van de Wall S, Meulenberg JJM, Boerma A, Hoogeboom BN, et al. First-in-human phase I clinical trial of an SFV-based RNA replicon cancer vaccine against HPV-induced cancers. Mol Ther. 2021;29:611–25. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

93.

Osada T, Berglund P, Morse MA, Hubby B, Lewis W, Niedzwiecki D, et al. Co-delivery of antigen and IL-12 by Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicon particles enhances antigen-specific immune responses and antitumor effects. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2012;61:1941–51. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

94.

Crosby EJ, Hobeika AC, Niedzwiecki D, Rushing C, Hsu D, Berglund P, et al. Long-term survival of patients with stage III colon cancer treated with VRP-CEA(6D), an alphavirus vector that increases the CD8+ effector memory T cell to Treg ratio. J Immunother Cancer. 2020;8:e001662. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

95.

Hasegawa K, Pham L, O’Connor MK, Federspiel MJ, Russell SJ, Peng KW. Dual therapy of ovarian cancer using measles viruses expressing carcinoembryonic antigen and sodium iodide symporter. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12:1868–75. [DOI] [PubMed]

96.

Galanis E, Hartmann LC, Cliby WA, Long HJ, Peethambaram PP, Barrette BA, et al. Phase I trial of intraperitoneal administration of an oncolytic measles virus strain engineered to express carcinoembryonic antigen for recurrent ovarian cancer. Cancer Res. 2010;70:875–82. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

97.

Durso RJ, Andjelic S, Gardner JP, Margitich DJ, Donovan GP, Arrigale RR, et al. A novel alphavirus vaccine encoding prostate-specific membrane antigen elicits potent cellular and humoral immune responses. Clin Cancer Res. 2007;13:3999–4008. [DOI] [PubMed]

98.

Slovin SF, Kehoe M, Durso R, Fernandez C, Olson W, Gao JP, et al. A phase I dose escalation trial of vaccine replicon particles (VRP) expressing prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) in subjects with prostate cancer. Vaccine. 2013;31:943–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

99.

Morse MA, Hobeika AC, Osada T, Berglund P, Hubby B, Negri S, et al. An alphavirus vector overcomes the presence of neutralizing antibodies and elevated numbers of Tregs to induce immune responses in humans with advanced cancer. J Clin Invest. 2010;120:3234–41. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

100.

Catenacci DV, Liao C, Maron S, Solomon BJ, Mahipal A, Johnson ML, et al. 960MO clinical outcomes and immune responses in a phase I/II study of personalized, neoantigen-directed immunotherapy in patients with advanced MSS-CRC, GEA and NSCLC. Ann Oncol. 2021;32:S830–31. [DOI]

101.

Agapov EV, Frolov I, Lindenbach BD, Prágai BM, Schlesinger S, Rice CM. Noncytopathic Sindbis virus RNA vectors for heterologous gene expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998;95:12989–94. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

102.

Lundstrom K, Abenavoli A, Malgaroli A, Ehrengruber MU. Novel Semliki Forest virus vectors with reduced cytotoxicity and temperature sensitivity for long-term enhancement of transgene expression. Mol Ther. 2003;7:202–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

103.

Lundstrom K. Therapeutic applications for oncolytic self-replicating RNA viruses. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:15622. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

104.

Perkovic M, Gawletta S, Hempel T, Brill S, Nett E, Sahin U, et al. A trans-amplifying RNA simplified to essential elements is highly replicative and robustly immunogenic in mice. Mol Ther. 2023;31:1636–46. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

105.

Dold C, Rodriguez Urbiola C, Wollmann G, Egerer L, Muik A, Bellmann L, et al. Application of interferon modulators to overcome partial resistance of human ovarian cancers to VSV-GP oncolytic viral therapy. Mol Ther Oncolytics. 2016;3:16021. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]