* A significant difference between subject groups with the same estrogen level at P < 0.05; ** A significant difference between estrogen levels within the same subject group at P < 0.05
Declarations
Author contributions
AAHSAJ: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. RKMJ: Investigation. ARKH: Validation, Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
Ethical approval was obtained from the ethical committee of University of Karbala (No. 112).
Consent to participate
Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects in advance of their admission to the study.
Dall GV, Britt KL. Estrogen effects on the mammary gland in early and late life and breast cancer risk.Front Oncol. 2017;7:110. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Leventea E, Harkness EF, Brentnall AR, Howell A, Evans DG, Harvie M. Is breast cancer risk associated with menopausal hormone therapy modified by current or early adulthood BMI or age of first pregnancy?Cancers. 2021;13:2710. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Dai X, Xiang L, Li T, Bai Z. Cancer hallmarks, biomarkers and breast cancer molecular subtypes.J Cancer. 2016;7:1281–94. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sardi JCO, Scorzoni L, Bernardi T, Fusco-Almeida AM, Mendes Giannini MJS. Candida species: current epidemiology, pathogenicity, biofilm formation, natural antifungal products and new therapeutic options.J Med Microbiol. 2013;62:10–24. [DOI] [PubMed]
Underhill DM, Iliev ID. The mycobiota: interactions between commensal fungi and the host immune system.Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14:405–16. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bradford LL, Ravel J. The vaginal mycobiome: a contemporary perspective on fungi in women’s health and diseases.Virulence. 2017;8:342–51. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Patt MW, Conte L, Blaha M, Plotkin BJ. Steroid hormones as interkingdom signaling molecules: Innate immune function and microbial colonization modulation.AIMS Mol Sci. 2018;5:117–30. [DOI]
Fidel PL Jr, Cutright J, Steele C. Effects of reproductive hormones on experimental vaginal candidiasis.Infect Immun. 2000;68:651–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Essmann M, Larsen B. Protective effect of the selective estrogen receptor modulator LY117018 on rat vaginal Candida albicans colonization.Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2000;49:57–61. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kelley C. Estrogen and its effect on vaginal atrophy in post-menopausal women.Urol Nurs. 2007;27:40–5. [PubMed]
Di Carlo F, Racca S, Gallo E, Conti G, Russo A, Mondo F, et al. Estrogen and progesterone receptors in the human vagina.J Endocrinol Invest. 1985;8:131–4. [DOI] [PubMed]
Aly MA, Aly IA. The role of vaginal acidity: the production of glycogen and it’s role on determining the gender of the fetus.Opt Lett. 2017.
Baldassarre M, Giannone FA, Foschini MP, Battaglia C, Busacchi P, Venturoli S, et al. Effects of long-term high dose testosterone administration on vaginal epithelium structure and estrogen receptor-α and -β expression of young women.Int J Impot Res. 2013;25:172–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
AL-Janabi AAHS, Mohammed Jawad RK. Estrogen on Candida spp. of the vagina: Is there any effect.Int J Med Rev. 2021;8:134–9. [DOI]
García-Estévez L, Cortés J, Pérez S, Calvo I, Gallegos I, Moreno-Bueno G. Obesity and breast cancer: a paradoxical and controversial relationship influenced by menopausal status.Front Oncol. 2021;11:705911. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Cummings SR, Duong T, Kenyon E, Cauley JA, Whitehead M, Krueger KA; Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation (MORE) Trial. Serum estradiol level and risk of breast cancer during treatment with raloxifene.JAMA. 2002;287:216–20. [DOI] [PubMed]
Słojewska K. The effect of physical activity on sex hormone levels in women. Implications for breast cancer risk.Nowotwory J Oncol. 2021;71:383–90.
Micheli A, Muti P, Secreto G, Krogh V, Meneghini E, Venturelli E, et al. Endogenous sex hormones and subsequent breast cancer in premenopausal women.Int J Cancer. 2004;112:312–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Reiner AS, Lynch CF, Sisti JS, John EM, Brooks JD, Bernstein L, et al.; WECARE Study Collaborative Group. Hormone receptor status of a first primary breast cancer predicts contralateral breast cancer risk in the WECARE study population.Breast Cancer Res. 2017;19:83. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Landers DV, Wiesenfeld HC, Heine RP, Krohn MA, Hillier SL. Predictive value of the clinical diagnosis of lower genital tract infection in women.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190:1004–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ng KP. Candida biotypes isolated from clinical specimens in Malaysia.Mycopathologia. 1998;144:135–40. [DOI] [PubMed]
Chong PP, Lee YL, Tan BC, Ng KP. Genetic relatedness of Candida strains isolated from women with vaginal candidiasis in Malaysia.J Med Microbiol. 2003;52:657–66. [DOI] [PubMed]
Barousse MM, Van Der Pol BJ, Fortenberry D, Orr D, Fidel PL Jr. Vaginal yeast colonisation, prevalence of vaginitis, and associated local immunity in adolescents.Sex Transm Infect. 2004;80:48–53. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ramirez-Garcia A, Rementeria A, Aguirre-Urizar JM, Moragues MD, Antoran A, Pellon A, et al. Candida albicans and cancer: Can this yeast induce cancer development or progression?Crit Rev Microbiol. 2016;42:181–93. [DOI] [PubMed]
Chung LM, Liang JA, Lin CL, Sun LM, Kao CH. Cancer risk in patients with candidiasis: a nationwide population-based cohort study.Oncotarget. 2017;8:63562–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Al-Abeid HM, Abu-Elteen KH, Elkarmi AZ, Hamad MA. Isolation and characterization of Candida spp. in Jordanian cancer patients: prevalence, pathogenic determinants, and antifungal sensitivity.Jpn J Infect Dis. 2004;57:279–84. [PubMed]
Faria DR, Sakita KM, Akimoto-Gunther LS, Kioshima ÉS, Svidzinski TIE, Bonfim-Mendonça PS. Cell damage caused by vaginal Candida albicans isolates from women with different symptomatologies.J Med Microbiol. 2017;66:1225–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Sobel JD. Pathogenesis and treatment of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.Clin Infect Dis. 1992;14 Suppl 1:S148–53. [DOI] [PubMed]
Tarry W, Fisher M, Shen S, Mawhinney M. Candida albicans: the estrogen target for vaginal colonization.J Surg Res. 2005;129:278–82. [DOI] [PubMed]