Table Info

Table 1.

List of nanomaterials and their role in cancer immunotherapy

S. No	Type of nano-material	Type of Nano-materials	Peptide/Antigen/ Antibody/	Cancer target	Functions	Ref.
1.	Organic Nano-materials	PEI	LA-PegPI, pDNA	Orthotopic hepatocellular carcinoma mouse model	Activation of CD8⁺ T cells and NK cells; upregulation of cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF and IL-12)	[153]
2.		PPS	ss-TG	B16-F10 melanoma, E.G7-OVA thymoma model	OVA specific CD8⁺ T cells and depletes Mo-MDSCs and G-MDSCs	[154]
3.		PEI	HA, ATRA	HCT-8 and CT-26 tumor models	Necrotic cell death (MCP-1, TNF-α) and antitumoral immune responses	[155]
4.		PEO-b-PCCL	JSI-124 (cucurbitacin I)	B16-F10 tumor	Efficient delivery of STAT inhibitor; Th1 immune responses (IL-2 and IFN-γ); suppress IL-6 responsible for immature DC	[156]
5.		nano-aAPC	MACS microbeads, MHC-Ig dimer and anti-CD28 antibody, TRP2 peptide	B16 melanoma	Two-fold binding of TLR on activated T cells; enhanced antigen specific T-cells	[157]
6.		PLGA	ICG, R837 (imiquimod)	Breast cancer (fLuc-4T1) and colorectal cancer (CT26) in female BALB/c mouse	Laser triggered tumour associated antigens and anti-CTLA4 checkpoint-blockade therapy inhibits Tregs	[128]
7.		Chlorin-based nanoscale metal-organic framework	IDO inhibitor	CT26 and MC38 colorectal cancer models in BALB/c mice and C57BL/6 mice and murine melanoma cells B16F10	T-cell infiltration, cell death, antigen-specific IFN-γ producing T cells; eradicates primary and treated tumours; diminished MHC-II expression	[158]
8.		PEG-PLL-PLLeu (PMP)	PIC (TLR3 agonist), OVA, STAT3 siRNA	B16 melanoma cells as TADC	Elevated levels of CD86, CD40, IL-12 by tumour associated DC; TADC activation, maturation and decline of immunosuppression	[159]
9.		Ac-DEX	OVA	B3Z (CD8⁺) and KZO (CD4⁺) cells in C57BL/6, TAP^–/– and B6CBAF1	Superior MHC I presentation than PLGA or iron oxide; presentation by TAP dependent or independent pathway	[85]
10.		Dex	OVA, LPS	BMDCs	T-cell mediated delayed type hypersensitivity, cytotoxic T cell induction in higher proportion, CD4⁺ T cell proliferation	[84]
11.		Cholesterol/ DOPC/ maleimide-PEGDSPE/PEG-DSPE (PEGylated liposomes)	Anti-CD40, CpG	B16F10 murine model of melanoma in C57BL/6 mice	Inhibition of tumour growth, reduced side effects, high level of distribution and presentation	[160]
12.		DOTAP cationic liposome	PIC (TLR3 agonist)	Hepa1-6 cell in C57BL/6 mice	Tumour specific CTL response, NK cells, IFN-γ, type I IFN and elevated maturation of mouse BMDCs, IRF-3/IRF-7 mRNA transcription	[161]
13.		Cationic liposomes	OVA peptide, TRP2 peptide	B16.F10luc2 or B16. OVA melanoma cells into C57Bl/6 mice	Elevated level of IFN-γ, CTL responses	[33]
14.		Lipid micro-bubbles	mRNA lipoplexes	Melanoma cell line MO4 and T cell lymphoma E.G7-OVA in C57BL/6 and OT-I mice	Antigen specific T-cell lysis the APC, long term immunological memory	[82]
15.		PMV from murine melanoma (B16-OVA)	Lipid [3(nitrilo-triacetic acid)-ditetradecylamine], CD11c, DEC-205, OVA, Adjuvant (IFN-γ, LPS, GM-CSF)	Metastatic murine B16-OVA melanoma in C57BL/6 mice	Targets DC and induces CTL responses-depends on DC maturation, IFN-γ, LPS, eotaxin.	[162]
16.		PMV	GPI, HER-2, IL-12, B7-1	D2F2/E2 cells in BALB/c mice	Specific hummoral (IgG) and cellular (Th1 and Th2) immunity	[78]
17.		HNSCC, PDTC	GNP, cisplatin (Pt)	Homotypic tumor cells from patient-derived xenograft model	Enhanced targeting, almost complete eradication of tumour	[106]
18.		aAPC	CD80, OVA	Murine melanoma cell line in C57BL/6 mice	Stimulated antigen presentation, T-cell responses without the need of professional APC	[35]
19.		Pyruvate dehydrogenase E2 protein	CpG, melanoma assoicated gp100 epitope	B16-F10 murine melanoma cell line in C57BL/6 mice and pmel-1	1.5 fold increase of CD8⁺ T cells and 5 fold increase of IFN-γ than unbound peptide and CpG; increases survival time of 40%	[80]
20.		PLL	GCpD, CpG-ODN	EMT6 murine mammary cancer model	Photoimmunotherapy: pro-inflammatory response and maturation of dendritic cells; imaging; targets TLR9	[163]
21.		Chitosan	HCuSNPs, CpG	EMT6 tumor in BALB/c mice	Tumour cell death; effective systemic immune responses (CD8⁺ T cells, IFN-γ and IL-2)	[164]
22.	Inorganic Nano-materials	Gold	PLGA-b-PEG, ZnPc, CpG-ODN	4T1 metastatic mouse breast carcinoma cells	Immunoadjuvant and antitumour response: Th17, NK, B-cell, NK, IFN-γ, etc.	[165]
23.		Iron oxide-zinc oxide	PEO-PPO-PEO, Zn binding motifs	CEA-expressing cancer cells (MC38/CEA) in C57BL/6 mice	Tumour antigen specific T cells; delayed tumour growth	[87]
24.		Iron oxide	DMSA, IFN-γ	Murine Pan02 pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell line in C57BL/6 mice	Enhanced T cell, macrophage infiltration and antiangiogenic effect	[166]
25.		CuS	LPS	CT26 tumor in BALB/c mice	Treats and prevents CT26 tumor in spleen and liver; activation of dendritic cells and antigen specific immune responses	[167]
26.		PBNP	anti-CTLA-4	Neuroblastoma (Neuro2a) cells in A/J mice	increased infiltration of lymphocytes and T cells to the tumor area with the help of anti-CTLA4	[168]
27.		PEG	GO, HPPH, HK peptide	Pulmonary metastatic 4T1 cells (4T1-fLuc) in BALB/c mice	Activates dendritic cells, infiltrates CD8⁺ T cells; prevents tumour growth and lung metastasis with immunological memory	[169]
28.		ZnP	Pyrolipid, anti-PD-L1	4T1 breast tumor cells in BALB/c mice	Inducing apoptosis, necrosis, disrupting tumor vasculature and increasing tumor immunogenicity; eliminates primary tumours and induces CTC responses	[170]
29.		AuNP	B16F10 cells, PTT	Murine Melanoma Model B16F10 cells and breast cancer cells 4T1 in Balb/c and C57BL/6 mice	Inhibition of tumour metastasis, tumour relapse, eradication of primary tumour, induces Dc maturation, T cell activation, cytokine secretion	[86]
30.		Mesoporous silica and AuNP (Au-XL-MSN)	CpG, PEG	B16-F10 cells in C57/ BL6 mouse	Antigen specific adaptive immunity, effective uptake of bone marrow DC, activates TLR9, synergestic therapeutic inhibits strongly tumour, induced IL-12, TNF-α	[88]
31.		MSNP	PEI, Curcumin	Breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) cells	Efficient intracellular uptake, non-toxic, disrupts mitochondria and nucleus lead to induction of apoptosis	[171]
32.		GPC3-targeting CAR-T cell membrane	IR780, MSNP	Hepatocellular carcinoma Huh-7 cells and SK-HEP-1 in BALB/ c-nu mice	Enhanced targeting ability, photothermal response and reduced toxicity.	[172]
33.		UCNPs	PEG, Ce6, R837 (imiquimod), anti-CTLA4	CT26 murine colorectal cancer cell line in Female BALB/c mice	Anti-tumour response with strong memory; stimulate DC maturation and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion (IL-12, IFN-γ and TNF-α), inhibits Tregs eliminate primary tumours	[173]

Mo-MDSCs: monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor Cells; G-MDSCs: granulocytic-MDSCs; PEI: poly-ethylenimine; PPS: poly-propylene-sulfide; ss-TG: ss-thromboglobulin; HA: hyaluronic acid; ATRA: all-trans-retinoic acid; MCP-1: monocyte chemotactic protein-1; PEO-b-PCCLL: poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(α-carboxylate-ε-caprolactone); nano-aAPC: nanoscale artificial antigen presenting cells; MACS: magnetic-activated cell sorting; ICG: indocyanine green; IDO: indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase; TADC: tumor-associated dendritic cell; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; DSPE: distearoylphosphoethanolamine; DOTAP: 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane; PIC: polyriboinosinic polyribocytidylic acid; CTL: cytotoxic T lymphocyte; IRF: interferon regulatory factor; GM-CSF: granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; PDTC: patient-derived tumor cell; GNP: gelatin nanoparticle; GCpD: graphene quantum dots; CpG-ODN: CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides; PLL: poly-L-lysine; PEG-PLL-PLLeu: PEG-b-PLL-b-poly(L-leucine); PMP: polypeptide micelle/poly I:C; CuS: copper sulfide; HCuSNPs: hollow CuS nanoparticles; PEO-PPO-PEO: PEO-b-poly(propylene oxide)-b-PEO; DMSA: dimercaptosuccinic acid; PBNP: prussian blue nanoparticle; GO: graphene oxide; HPPH: photosensitizer; HK: histidine-lysine; ZnP: Zn-pyrophosphate; PTT: photothermal therapy; MSNP: mesoporous silica nanoparticle; Ce6: chlorin e6; UCNPs: upconversion nanoparticles; TAP: transporter associated with antigen processing

Declarations

Author contributions

SRKP designed the main theme of this review and involved in the development of a hypothesis. He collected the data and contributed to the writing of this review. CFR involved in the collection of data, development of the hypothesis, and drafting the tables. KS guided the design of this review and hypothesis. He edited the overall manuscript and authenticated the technical value of this manuscript.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest in the publication.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

KS would like to acknowledge the financial support by Science and Engineering Research Board of India (EMR/2016/003035). CFR acknowledges Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education for financial assistance in the form of Post-graduate Scholarship. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

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