Table Info

Table 3.

Association of cytokine profile with malaria patients and control

Cytokine	Univariate			Multivariate
Cytokine	Coefficient	P-value	95% CI	Coefficient	P-value	95% CI
IL-6 (pg/mL)	–0.0003147	0.568	–0.0013951 0.0007656	–0.0007699	0.256	–0.0020986 0.0005588
IL-8 (pg/mL)	–0.0183091	0.003^*	0.0060978 0.0305204	0.0355878	0.028^*	0.0038645 0.067311
IL-10 (pg/mL)	–0.0336167	0.054	–0.0005856 0.067819	–0.0577672	0.192	–0.1445387 0.0290044
IFN-γ (pg/mL)	–0.0031794	0.005^*	0.0009537 0.0054051	0.0036688	0.008^*	0.0009377 0.0063999
TNF-β (pg/mL)	–0.0009541	0.260	–0.0007051 0.0026133	–0.000248	0.796	–0.0021277 0.0016317

^* P-value < 0.05 significantly statistical association. CI: confident interval

Declarations

Acknowledgments

We send special thanks and appreciation to the National Health Insurance Authority in the White and Blue Nile states for conducting this study in their facilities. Additionally, we thank also the laboratory staff and nurses in National Health Insurance treating centers for their kind help and cooperation. And we wish to express our gratitude to Mr. Mohamed Bala and Dr. Abu Baker M. Alkinani for their expert technical assistance.

Author contributions

DAA: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Investigation, Writing—review & editing. M Hussein: Investigation, Validation. M Hassan: Investigation, Validation. AGE: Validation, Visualization, Writing—original draft. MME: Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

This study was approved by the Research and Medical Ethics Committee at Alzaiem Alazhari University, and the Federal Ministry of Health under the Research approval record (MH.CR 2021, M.E.R03021-RN001), and complies with the Helsinki Declaration.

Consent to participate

Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants and parents or guardians of children.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

References

Riley EM, Hviid L, Theander TG. Malaria. In: Kierszenbaum F, editor. Parasitic infections and the immune system. New York: Academic Press; 1994. pp. 119–43. [DOI]

Jamison DT, Feacham RG, Makgoba MW, Bos ER, Baingana FK, Hofman KJ, et al., editors. Disease and mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa. 2nd ed. Washington (DC): World Bank; 2006. [PubMed]

Snow RW, Craig M, Deichmann U, Marsh K. Estimating mortality, morbidity and disability due to malaria among Africa’s non-pregnant population. Bull World Health Organ. 1999;77:624–40. [PubMed] [PMC]

Greenwood BM, Bradley AK, Greenwood AM, Byass P, Jammeh K, Marsh K, et al. Mortality and morbidity from malaria among children in a rural area of the Gambia, West Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1987;81:478–86. [DOI] [PubMed]

Day KP, Marsh K. Naturally acquired immunity to Plasmodium faldparum. Immunol Today. 1991;12:A68–71. [DOI] [PubMed]

Langhorne J, Albano FR, Hensmann M, Sanni L, Cadman E, Voisine C, et al. Dendritic cells, pro-inflammatory responses, and antigen presentation in a rodent malaria infection. Immunol Rev. 2004;201:35–47. [DOI] [PubMed]

Feghali CA, Wright TM. Cytokines in acute and chronic inflammation. Front Biosci. 1997;2:12–26. [DOI] [PubMed]

Malaguarnera L, Musumeci S. The immune response to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Lancet Infect Dis. 2002;2:472–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

Chua CL, Brown G, Hamilton JA, Rogerson S, Boeuf P. Monocytes and macrophages in malaria: protection or pathology? Trends Parasitol. 2013;29:26–34. [DOI] [PubMed]

10.

Farrington L, Vance H, Rek J, Prahl M, Jagannathan P, Katureebe A, et al. Both inflammatory and regulatory cytokine responses to malaria are blunted with increasing age in highly exposed children. Malar J. 2017;16:499. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

11.

de Kossodo S, Grau GE. Role of cytokines and adhesion molecules in malaria immunopathology. Stem Cells. 1993;11:41–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

12.

Mandala WL, Harawa V, Dzinjalamala F, Tembo D. The role of different components of the immune system against Plasmodium falciparum malaria: possible contribution towards malaria vaccine development. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 2021;246:111425. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

13.

Alfaki DA, Eisa IM, Elbasheir MM, Humida ME. Monocytes to lymphocytes ratio in peripheral blood and immunoglobulin IgE levels as indicators to Plasmodium falciparum infection in Sudan. J Bacteriol Mycol Open Access. 2019;7:150–3. [DOI]

14.

Dzeing-Ella A, Nze Obiang PC, Tchoua R, Planche T, Mboza B, Mbounja M, et al. Severe falciparum malaria in Gabonese children: clinical and laboratory features. Malar J. 2005;4:1. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

15.

Carter JA, Neville BG, White S, Ross AJ, Otieno G, Mturi N, et al. Increased prevalence of epilepsy associated with severe falciparum malaria in children. Epilepsia. 2004;45:978–81. [DOI] [PubMed]

16.

Dunst J, Kamena F, Matuschewski K. Cytokines and chemokines in cerebral malaria pathogenesis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2017;7:324. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

17.

Angulo I, Fresno M. Cytokines in the pathogenesis of and protection against malaria. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2002;9:1145–52. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

18.

Doolan DL, Dobaño C, Baird JK. Acquired immunity to malaria. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2009;22:13–36. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Winkler S, Willheim M, Baier K, Schmid D, Aichelburg A, Graninger W, et al. Reciprocal regulation of Th1- and Th2-cytokine-producing T cells during clearance of parasitemia in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Infect Immun. 1998;66:6040–4. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

20.

Shabani E, Ouma BJ, Idro R, Bangirana P, Opoka RO, Park GS, et al. Elevated cerebrospinal fluid tumour necrosis factor is associated with acute and long-term neurocognitive impairment in cerebral malaria. Parasite Immunol. 2017;39:e12438. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

21.

Armah HB, Wilson NO, Sarfo BY, Powell MD, Bond VC, Anderson W, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid and serum biomarkers of cerebral malaria mortality in Ghanaian children. Malar J. 2007;6:147. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

22.

Grau GE, Taylor TE, Molyneux ME, Wirima JJ, Vassalli P, Hommel M, et al. Tumor necrosis factor and disease severity in children with falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1586–91. [DOI] [PubMed]

23.

Burgmann H, Hollenstein U, Wenisch C, Thalhammer F, Looareesuwan S, Graninger W. Serum concentrations of MIP-1 alpha and interleukin-8 in patients suffering from acute Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1995;76:32–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

24.

Ademolue TW, Aniweh Y, Kusi KA, Awandare GA. Patterns of inflammatory responses and parasite tolerance vary with malaria transmission intensity. Malar J. 2017;16:145. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Ozarslan N, Robinson JF, Gaw SL. Circulating monocytes, tissue macrophages, and malaria. J Trop Med. 2019;2019:3720838. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

26.

Nagao T, Uemura H, Yanagi T, Oishi K, Nagatake T, Kanbara H. Loss of tumor necrosis factor production by human monocytes in falciparum malaria after their maturation in vitro. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996;55:562–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

27.

Moncunill G, Mayor A, Bardají A, Puyol L, Nhabomba A, Barrios D, et al. Cytokine profiling in immigrants with clinical malaria after extended periods of interrupted exposure to Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS One. 2013;8:e73360. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

28.

Gonçalves RM, Scopel KK, Bastos MS, Ferreira MU. Cytokine balance in human malaria: does Plasmodium vivax elicit more inflammatory responses than Plasmodium falciparum? PLoS One. 2012;7:e44394. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

29.

Baird JK. Host age as a determinant of naturally acquired immunity to Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Today. 1995;11:105–11. [DOI] [PubMed]

30.

Baird JK, Jones TR, Danudirgo EW, Annis BA, Bangs MJ, Basri H, et al. Age-dependent acquired protection against Plasmodium falciparum in people having two years exposure to hyperendemic malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991;45:65–76. [DOI] [PubMed]