Table Info

Table 1.

Therapeutic interventions in stroke therapy

Sl. No.	Stem cell types	Function	References
1	Embryonic stem cells	Murine embryonic stem cells (mESCs) show promise in restoring function in ischemia mouse models. However, concerns over their immunogenicity and teratoma-forming tendency hinder widespread clinical acceptance.	[190]
2	Human umbilical cord blood cells (HUCBCs)	Migrated to the injury site and differentiated into neuronal and glial cells, leading to elevated trophic factors in the brain. These factors positively correlate with decreased cerebral infarcts and improved behavioral functions.	[191]
3	Bone marrow stem cells (BMSCs)	BMSCs injection during or after cerebral infarction regenerates neurons, boosting survival rates and enhancing brain function.	[192]
4	Human fetal neural progenitors	Transplanting human fetal hippocampal cells and embryonic cortical cells into rat ischemic models, as well as human fetal striatal cells into a rodent stroke model, enhances behavior. Moreover, the transplanted human cells establish both afferent and efferent connections with host rodent cells.	[193]
5	Neural stem cells (NSCs)	NSC engraftment enhances synaptic reformation and electrophysiological properties in damaged brains by optimizing the microenvironment. It restores neuronal functions by secreting neurotrophic factors [brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)], supporting neuron health, generation, and survival, along with maintaining the extracellular matrix.	[194, 195]
6	VEGF	Facilitates angiogenesis and promotes vascular repair in ischemia-induced blood vessel damage.	[196]
7	Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF), and other such factors	Secretions from NSCs play crucial roles in safeguarding, sustaining, and fostering the proliferation of neural cells.	[197]
8	Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)	Neuro-restoration involves diverse mechanisms, including paracrine factor release, cell replacement, mitochondrial transfer, etc. Additionally, they induce angiogenesis through VEGF release.	[198]
9	Adipose tissue-derived MSCs	These cells efficiently aid neuro-regeneration, being easily accessible and abundant. They provide protection via extracellular vesicle release, with studies confirming the safety and efficacy of vesicles from adipose tissue-derived MSCs.	[199]
10	Human adipose stromal cells	Liposuction-derived adipose tissue stromal cells, when exposed to chemicals like 5-azacytidine, NGF, BDNF, and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), can undergo differentiation into neurons.	[200]
11	Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)	The occurrence of teratoma in the mouse brain underscores the imperative to address and resolve the tumorigenicity of iPSCs before clinical application. Nonetheless, iPSCs exhibit significant potential as formidable stem cells for tissue regeneration.	[201]
12	Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs)	Neurotrophic factors, including neurotrophins, GDNF, and neurturin, are produced during dental pulp innervation initiation. Increased expression of NGF, BDNF, and GDNF mRNAs precedes dental pulp innervation onset. These factors likely support trigeminal nerve growth and tooth innervation establishment, playing crucial roles in neuronal survival, plasticity, and axon growth.	[202]
13	Skin stem cells	Murine skin-derived progenitors (mSKPs) from developmental stages exhibit osteogenic, adipogenic, smooth muscle, and neuronal differentiation potentials. They offer promise as an alternative source for addressing mesenchymal and neurodegenerative disorders.	[203]
14	Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs)	Transplanted OECs in injured spinal cords can enhance axonal regeneration. The reconstitution of the olfactory neuroaxis is possible following central axotomy. In vivo, nasal OECs (nOECs) remain viable and respond to signals from injured neuronal cells and their processes.	[204]
15	Human fetal neural progenitors	Human fetal neuronal precursor cells exhibit ex vivo neuronal differentiation, acquiring a region-specific cholinergic phenotype.	[131]
16	Fetal kidney cells	Fetal kidney cell transplants in stroke rats express elevated GDNF and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) levels, showing promise for neuroprotection and neuroregeneration in ischemic brain injury.	[7]
17	Haematological stem cells	Stem cell mobilization post-cerebral infarction leads to neuronal regeneration, enhancing survival rates and brain function following cerebral ischemia.	[205]
18	Adult-derived NSC	Exogenous NSC therapy in stroke reconstructs neuronal circuits and offers neuroprotection by secreting survival-promoting neurotrophic factors, either naturally or through therapeutic transgenes.	[131]

An extensive overview is provided, highlighting a myriad of therapeutic strategies employed in the management of cerebral stroke. The table specifically delineates the utilization of different types of stem cells, showcasing the diverse approaches and regenerative interventions aimed at mitigating the impact of cerebral stroke and promoting neural recovery

Declaration

Acknowledgments

Department of Knowledge and Information Management of CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, is greatly acknowledged for generating institutional publication number IICT/Pubs/2023/443.

Author contributions

MR, RK, and BSA: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Formal analysis. AK and SC: Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Validation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

The work was funded by ICMR grant [5/4-5/3/17/Neuro/2022-NCD-1] to SC and SERB-POWER Fellowship [SPF/2021/000045]. MR and RK were supported by doctoral fellowships from CSIR India. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

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