Table Info

Table 2.

Variable selection by hypothesized physiopathogenic mechanisms

Physiopathogenic hypothesis	References	Hypothesis related variables	PCA selected	Higher weight	For cluster
DA hypoactivity in DLPC	[31, 32] [35–42] [96, 98]	TBR, zP300l, zP300a zN200l, zN200a zP50r, P100r	zP300l, zP300a zN200a, zP50r	P300l	1
Perisylvian network hyperexcitability	[55, 66–71, 102]	zWBP, CTS	zWBP, CTS	zWBP, CTS	2
Excite-inhibit imbalance, thalamocortical	[48, 102]	zTBR, BSSW	BSSW	BSSW	3
Misallocation of attentional resources	[35, 41]	zP300l, zP300a, zN200l, zN200a, zP50r, P100r, zFBP	zP300l, zP300a, zN200a, zP50r, zFBP	zP300a, zP50r, zFBPP	4
Vascular-metabolic decoupling, Cx hyperexcitability	[95, 98]	zDP, zFBP, HR, SST	zFBP, HR, SST	zFBP, HR, SST	5
Poor interhemispheric collaboration	[82, 105]	zMA	zMA	zMA	6

On the first and second column, physiopathogenic hypothesis and bibliographic references, followed by the EEG/ERP variables associated with other disorders and supporting references (after PCA selection); fourth column, variables statistically selected as independent contributors to the variance; in the fifth, variables with highest loads to a specific cluster; and the cluster number in the last column. DA: dopamine; PFC: prefrontal cortex; ThCx: thalamocortical; TBR: theta-beta ratio; zP300l: z-scored auditory P300 latency; zP300a: z-scored auditory P300 amplitude; zP50r: z-scored auditory P50 ratio; zWBP: z-scored Wide-Band Power (focal); zFBP: z-scored fast beta power (26–29 Hz sub-band, regional); zHR: z-scored 20 Hz power during 20 Hz photic stimulation; CTS: centrotemporal spikes; SST: small sharp transients; BSSW: bisynchronous spike waves; zMA: z-scored maturational asymmetry; PCA: Principal Component Analysis

Declarations

Author contributions

MGM: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Supervision, Data curation, Formal analysis. AT: Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing—review & editing. MJMS: Investigation, Supervision, Project administration, Resources. AM: Investigation. OML: Project administration, Supervision, Writing—review & editing. LC: Investigation, Project administration, Writing—review & editing. LQ: Data curation, Formal analysis. CA: Conceptualization, Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

The project “Neurophysiological findings in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, a Pandora’s box with therapeutic implications” was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital Español de México (signed and sealed acceptance letter).

Consent to participate

Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all the participants/parents.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The raw and analyzed EEG/ERP data and the neuropsychological scores are available on request to the corresponding author to all qualified investigators.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

References

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington: American Psychiatric Association; 2013. [DOI]

Faraone SV, Banaschewski T, Coghill D, Zheng Y, Biederman J, Bellgrove MA, et al. The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based conclusions about the disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021;128:789–818. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Arnett AB, Flaherty BP. A framework for characterizing heterogeneity in neurodevelopmental data using latent profile analysis in a sample of children with ADHD. J Neurodev Disord. 2022;14:45. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Nigg JT, Karalunas SL, Feczko E, Fair DA. Toward a Revised Nosology for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Heterogeneity. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2020;5:726–37. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Karalunas SL, Nigg JT. Heterogeneity and Subtyping in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder-Considerations for Emerging Research Using Person-Centered Computational Approaches. Biol Psychiatry. 2020;88:103–10. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Lange KW, Reichl S, Lange KM, Tucha L, Tucha O. The history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord. 2010;2:241–55. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Peterson BS, Trampush J, Maglione M, Bolshakova M, Rozelle M, Miles J, et al. Treatments for ADHD in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Pediatrics. 2024;153:e2024065787. [DOI] [PubMed]

Rosenthal E, Fu Q, DuPaul GJ, Reid R, Anastopoulos AD, Power TJ. Assessing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-related impairment: Differential item functioning based on child demographic characteristics. Sch Psychol. 2024. [DOI] [PubMed]

Sonuga-Barke EJS, Sergeant JA, Nigg J, Willcutt E. Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2008;17:367–84. [DOI] [PubMed]

10.

Sonuga-Barke E, Bitsakou P, Thompson M. Beyond the dual pathway model: evidence for the dissociation of timing, inhibitory, and delay-related impairments in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49:345–55. [DOI] [PubMed]

11.

Coghill DR, Seth S, Matthews K. A comprehensive assessment of memory, delay aversion, timing, inhibition, decision making and variability in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: advancing beyond the three-pathway models. Psychol Med. 2014;44:1989–2001. [DOI] [PubMed]

12.

Isaac V, Lopez V, Escobar MJ. Arousal dysregulation and executive dysfunction in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Front Psychiatry. 2024;14:1336040. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

13.

Cortese S, Kelly C, Chabernaud C, Proal E, Martino AD, Milham MP, et al. Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: a meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169:1038–55. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

14.

Levy F. The dopamine theory of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 1991;25:277–83. [DOI] [PubMed]

15.

MacDonald HJ, Kleppe R, Szigetvari PD, Haavik J. The dopamine hypothesis for ADHD: An evaluation of evidence accumulated from human studies and animal models. Front Psychiatry. 2024;15:1492126. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

16.

Amalric M, Pattij T, Sotiropoulos I, Silva JM, Sousa N, Ztaou S, et al. Where Dopaminergic and Cholinergic Systems Interact: A Gateway for Tuning Neurodegenerative Disorders. Front Behav Neurosci. 2021;15:661973. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

17.

Tian Y. The Role of Dopamine Neurotransmitters in Neurological Diseases: New Sight. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25:7529. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

18.

Ouellette J, Lacoste B. From Neurodevelopmental to Neurodegenerative Disorders: The Vascular Continuum. Front Aging Neurosci. 2021;13:749026. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Kessi M, Duan H, Xiong J, Chen B, He F, Yang L, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder updates. Front Mol Neurosci. 2022;15:925049. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

20.

da Silva BS, Grevet EH, Silva LCF, Ramos JKN, Rovaris DL, Bau CHD. An overview on neurobiology and therapeutics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Discov Ment Health. 2023;3:2. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

21.

Huang X, Wang M, Zhang Q, Chen X, Wu J. The role of glutamate receptors in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: From physiology to disease. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2019;180:272–86. [DOI] [PubMed]

22.

Ferranti AS, Luessen DJ, Niswender CM. Novel pharmacological targets for GABAergic dysfunction in ADHD. Neuropharmacology. 2024;249:109897. [DOI] [PubMed]

23.

Arnsten AFT. The Emerging Neurobiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The Key Role of the Prefrontal Association Cortex. J Pediatr. 2009;154:I–S43. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

24.

Stevens MC, Pearlson GD, Calhoun VD, Bessette KL. Functional Neuroimaging Evidence for Distinct Neurobiological Pathways in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2018;3:675–85. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Shen C, Luo Q, Jia T, Zhao Q, Desrivières S, Quinlan EB, et al. Neural Correlates of the Dual-Pathway Model for ADHD in Adolescents. Am J Psychiatry. 2020;177:844–54. [DOI] [PubMed]

26.

Li D, Sham PC, Owen MJ, He L. Meta-analysis shows significant association between dopamine system genes and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Hum Mol Genet. 2006;15:2276–84. [DOI] [PubMed]

27.

Grimm O, Kranz TM, Reif A. Genetics of ADHD: What Should the Clinician Know? Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2020;22:18. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

28.

Wang Y, Wang T, Du Y, Hu D, Zhang Y, Li H, et al. Polygenic risk of genes involved in the catecholamine and serotonin pathways for ADHD in children. Neurosci Lett. 2021;760:136086. [DOI] [PubMed]

29.

Jasper H, Solomon P, Bradley C. Electroencephalographic analyses of behavior problem children. Am J Psychiatry. 1938;95:641–58. [DOI]

30.

Monastra VJ, Lubar JF, Linden M. The development of a quantitative electroencephalographic scanning process for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: reliability and validity studies. Neuropsychology. 2001;15:136–44. [DOI] [PubMed]

31.

Hassan M, Gordon W, Honeywell M, Thornton A, Thomas TA, Allen E, et al. Neuropsychiatric EEG-Based Assessment Aid System. US Pharm. 2017;42:25–7.

32.

van Dijk H, deBeus R, Kerson C, Roley-Roberts ME, Monastra VJ, Arnold LE, et al. Different Spectral Analysis Methods for the Theta/Beta Ratio Calculate Different Ratios But Do Not Distinguish ADHD from Controls. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2020;45:165–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

33.

Slater J, Joober R, Koborsy BL, Mitchell S, Sahlas E, Palmer C. Can electroencephalography (EEG) identify ADHD subtypes? A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022;139:104752. [DOI] [PubMed]

34.

Onofrj MC, Fulgente T, Nobilio D, Bazzano S, Colamartino P. Mapping of event-related potentials to auditory and visual odd-ball paradigms in controls. Eur Neurol. 1991;31:220–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

35.

Falkenstein M. Recent Advances in Clinical Applications of P300 and MMN. Neuromethods. 2024;206:1–21. [DOI]

36.

Taylor MJ, Voros JG, Logan WJ, Malone MA. Changes in event-related potentials with stimulant medication in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychol. 1993;36:139–56. [DOI] [PubMed]

37.

Tao M, Sun J, Liu S, Zhu Y, Ren Y, Liu Z, et al. An event-related potential study of P300 in preschool children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Front Pediatr. 2024;12:1461921. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

38.

Park EJ, Park Y, Lee S, Kim B. The Loudness Dependence of Auditory Evoked Potentials is associated with the Symptom Severity and Treatment in Boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2022;20:514–25. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

39.

Morand-Beaulieu S, Smith SD, Ibrahim K, Wu J, Leckman JF, Crowley MJ, et al. Electrophysiological signatures of inhibitory control in children with Tourette syndrome and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Cortex. 2022;147:157–68. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

40.

Kaiser A, Aggensteiner P, Baumeister S, Holz NE, Banaschewski T, Brandeis D. Earlier versus later cognitive event-related potentials (ERPs) in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2020;112:117–34. [DOI] [PubMed]

41.

Hamilton HK, Mathalon DH, Ford JM. P300 in schizophrenia: Then and now. Biol Psychol. 2024;187:108757. [DOI] [PubMed]

42.

Schulz SE, Luszawski M, Hannah KE, Stevenson RA. Sensory Gating in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Scoping Review. Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol. 2023;51:1005–19. [DOI] [PubMed]

43.

Gibbs FA, Davis H, Lennox WG. The electroencephalogram in epilepsy and in conditions of impaired consciousness. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1935;34:1133–48. [DOI]

44.

Geier S. Prolonged psychic epileptic seizures: a study of the absence status. Epilepsia. 1978;19:431–45. [DOI] [PubMed]

45.

Nightingale S, Welch JL. Psychometric assessment in absence status. Arch Neurol. 1982;39:516–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

46.

Ferner RE, Panayiotopoulos CP. ‘Phantom’ typical absences, absence status and experiential phenomena. Seizure. 1993;2:253–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

47.

Vuilleumier P, Despland PA, Regli F. Failure to recall (but not to remember): pure transient amnesia during nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Neurology. 1996;46:1036–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

48.

Vuilleumier P, Assal F, Blanke O, Jallon P. Distinct behavioral and EEG topographic correlates of loss of consciousness in absences. Epilepsia. 2000;41:687–93. [DOI] [PubMed]

49.

Specchio N, Wirrell EC, Scheffer IE, Nabbout R, Riney K, Samia P, et al. International League Against Epilepsy classification and definition of epilepsy syndromes with onset in childhood: Position paper by the ILAE Task Force on Nosology and Definitions. Epilepsia. 2022;63:1398–442. [DOI] [PubMed]

50.

Diamond JM, Withers CP, Chapeton JI, Rahman S, Inati SK, Zaghloul KA. Interictal discharges in the human brain are travelling waves arising from an epileptogenic source. Brain. 2023;146:1903–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

51.

Tao JX, Qin X, Wang Q. Ictal-interictal continuum: a review of recent advancements. Acta Epileptologica. 2020;13:2. [DOI]

52.

Shamshiri EA, Tierney TM, Centeno M, Pier KS, Pressler RM, Sharp DJ, et al. Interictal activity is an important contributor to abnormal intrinsic network connectivity in paediatric focal epilepsy. Hum Brain Mapp. 2017;38:221–36. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

53.

Binnie CD. Cognitive impairment during epileptiform discharges: is it ever justifiable to treat the EEG? Lancet Neurol. 2003;2:725–30. [DOI]

54.

Aldenkamp AP, Arends J. Effects of epileptiform EEG discharges on cognitive function: is the concept of “transient cognitive impairment” still valid? Epilepsy Behav. 2004;5 Suppl 1:S25–34. [DOI] [PubMed]

55.

Halász P, Szũcs A. Self-limited childhood epilepsies are disorders of the perisylvian communication system, carrying the risk of progress to epileptic encephalopathies-Critical review. Front Neurol. 2023;14:1092244. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

56.

Halász P, Ujma PP, Fabó D, Bódizs R, Szűcs A. Epilepsy as a derailment of sleep plastic functions may cause chronic cognitive impairment - A theoretical review. Sleep Med Rev. 2019;45:31–41. [DOI] [PubMed]

57.

Gibbs FA, Davis H. The electroencephalogram in non-epileptic children. J Pediatr. 1950;36:601–11.

58.

Binnie CD. Significance and management of transitory cognitive impairment due to subclinical EEG discharges in children. Brain Dev. 1993;15:23–30. [DOI] [PubMed]

59.

Laporte N, Sébire G, Gillerot Y, Guerrini R, Ghariani S. Cognitive epilepsy: ADHD related to focal EEG discharges. Pediatr Neurol. 2002;27:307–11. [DOI] [PubMed]

60.

Lee EH, Choi YS, Yoon HS, Bahn GH. Clinical Impact of Epileptiform Discharge in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). J Child Neurol. 2016;31:584–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

61.

Faught E, Karakis I, Drane DL. The Impact of Interictal Discharges on Performance. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2018;18:88. [DOI] [PubMed]

62.

Mahmoud MB, Ali NB, Fray S, Jamoussi H, Chebbi S, Fredj M. Utility of EEG on attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Epilepsy Behav. 2021;114:107583. [DOI] [PubMed]

63.

Meisenhelter S, Quon RJ, Steimel SA, Testorf ME, Camp EJ, Moein P, et al. Interictal Epileptiform Discharges are Task Dependent and are Associated with Lasting Electrocorticographic Changes. Cereb Cortex Commun. 2021;2:tgab019. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

64.

Swatzyna RJ, Arns M, Tarnow JD, Turner RP, Barr E, MacInerney EK, et al. Isolated epileptiform activity in children and adolescents: prevalence, relevance, and implications for treatment. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2022;31:545–52. [DOI] [PubMed]

65.

Kumar A, Lyzhko E, Hamid L, Srivastav A, Stephani U, Japaridze N. Neuronal networks underlying ictal and subclinical discharges in childhood absence epilepsy. J Neurol. 2023;270:1402–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

66.

Orak SA, Bilaç Ö, Polat M, Sobay NS, Yalçin AH, Korkmaz R, et al. Neurocognitive effects and electrophysiological findings in ADHD and self-limiting centrotemporal spike wave epilepsy (SeLECTS) - A prospective tertiary care study. Epilepsy Behav. 2024;157:109900. [DOI] [PubMed]

67.

Ko YJ, Han JH, Cho A, Yoo H, Kim H. Abnormal Electroencephalogram Findings and Its Correlation With Clinical Features From Pediatric Patients in Psychiatric Clinic. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2024;55:636–42. [DOI] [PubMed]

68.

Neto FK, Noschang R, Nunes ML. The relationship between epilepsy, sleep disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children: A review of the literature. Sleep Sci. 2016;9:158–63. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

69.

Uliel-Sibony S, Chernuha V, Latzer IT, Leitner Y. Epilepsy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: An overview of etiology, prevalence, and treatment. Front Hum Neurosci. 2023;17:1021605. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

70.

Halász P, Kelemen A, Clemens B, Saracz J, Rosdy B, Rásonyi G, et al. The perisylvian epileptic network. A unifying concept. Ideggyogy Sz. 2005;58:21–31. [PubMed]

71.

Halász P, Kelemen A, Rosdy B, Rásonyi G, Clemens B, Szűcs A. Perisylvian epileptic network revisited. Seizure. 2019;65:31–41. [DOI] [PubMed]

72.

Arruda MA, Arruda R, Guidetti V, Bigal ME. ADHD Is Comorbid to Migraine in Childhood: A Population-Based Study. J Atten Disord. 2020;24:990–1001. [DOI] [PubMed]

73.

Hernandez A, Cano-Yepes A, Sainz de Aja-Curbelo V, Santana-Farré R, Rodríguez-Sosa T, Cabrera-Naranjo F. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults With Migraine. J Atten Disord. 2024;28:117–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

74.

Hsu T, Chen M, Chu C, Tsai S, Bai Y, Su T, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and risk of migraine: A nationwide longitudinal study. Headache. 2022;62:634–41. [DOI] [PubMed]

75.

Li D, Tsai S, Chen T, Liang C, Chen M. Risk of major mental disorders in the offspring of parents with migraine. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2024;23:23. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

76.

Tarantino S, Checchi MP, Papetti L, Ursitti F, Sforza G, Ferilli MAN, et al. Interictal Cognitive Performance in Children and Adolescents With Primary Headache: A Narrative Review. Front Neurol. 2022;13:898626. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

77.

Cankaya S, Ayyildiz B, Sayman D, Duran U, Ucak D, Karaca R, et al. Hippocampal connectivity dynamics and volumetric alterations predict cognitive status in migraine: A resting-state fMRI study. Neuroimage. 2025;305:120961. [DOI] [PubMed]

78.

Chen Y, Xie S, Zhang L, Li D, Su H, Wang R, et al. Attentional network deficits in patients with migraine: behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. J Headache Pain. 2024;25:195. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

79.

Cheng N, Bryce S, Takagi M, Pert A, Rattray A, Fisher E, et al. The Prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Psychotic Disorders: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull. 2025;sbae228. [DOI] [PubMed]

80.

Hennig T, Jaya ES, Koglin U, Lincoln TM. Associations of attention-deficit/hyperactivity and other childhood disorders with psychotic experiences and disorders in adolescence. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2017;26:421–31. [DOI] [PubMed]

81.

Andersson A, Tuvblad C, Chen Q, Rietz ED, Cortese S, Kuja-Halkola R, et al. Research Review: The strength of the genetic overlap between ADHD and other psychiatric symptoms - a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2020;61:1173–83. [DOI] [PubMed]

82.

Gerez M, Tello A, Serrano C, Ibarra R, Mallet A. Asymmetries in brain maturation and behavioral disturbances: multivariate electroencephalogram and P300 studies. J Child Neurol. 1999;14:88–97. [DOI] [PubMed]

83.

Hale TS, Kane AM, Kaminsky O, Tung KL, Wiley JF, McGough JJ, et al. Visual Network Asymmetry and Default Mode Network Function in ADHD: An fMRI Study. Front Psychiatry. 2014;5:81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

84.

Postema MC, Hoogman M, Ambrosino S, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Bandeira CE, et al.; ENIGMA ADHD Working Group; Thompson PM, Fisher SE, Franke B, Francks C. Analysis of structural brain asymmetries in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in 39 datasets. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2021;62:1202–19. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

85.

Avnit A, Zibman S, Alyagon U, Zangen A. Abnormal functional asymmetry and its behavioural correlates in adults with ADHD: A TMS-EEG study. PLoS One. 2023;18:e0285086. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

86.

Hale TS, Kane AM, Tung KL, Kaminsky O, McGough JJ, Hanada G, et al. Abnormal Parietal Brain Function in ADHD: Replication and Extension of Previous EEG Beta Asymmetry Findings. Front Psychiatry. 2014;5:87. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

87.

Wechsler D. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. 5th ed. APA PsycTests; 2014. [DOI]

88.

Wechsler D. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. 4th ed. APA PsycTests; 2008. [DOI]

89.

Conners CK. Conners’ Rating Scales – Revised. APA PsycTests; 1997. [DOI]

90.

Wolraich ML, Feurer ID, Hannah JN, Baumgaertel A, Pinnock TY. Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Parent Rating Scale. APA PsycTests; 2003. [DOI]

91.

Achenbach TM. Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4-18 and 1991 Profile. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry; 1991.

92.

Mulraney M, Arrondo G, Musullulu H, Iturmendi-Sabater I, Cortese S, Westwood SJ, et al. Systematic Review and Meta-analysis: Screening Tools for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2022;61:982–96. [DOI] [PubMed]

93.

Klem GH, Lüders HO, Jasper HH, Elger C. The ten-twenty electrode system of the International Federation. The International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl. 1999;52:3–6. [PubMed]

94.

Babiloni C, Barry RJ, Başar E, Blinowska KJ, Cichocki A, Drinkenburg WHIM, et al. International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology (IFCN) - EEG research workgroup: Recommendations on frequency and topographic analysis of resting state EEG rhythms. Part 1: Applications in clinical research studies. Clin Neurophysiol. 2020;131:285–307. [DOI] [PubMed]

95.

Fogang Y, Gérard P, Pasqua VD, Pepin JL, Ndiaye M, Magis D, et al. Analysis and clinical correlates of 20 Hz photic driving on routine EEG in migraine. Acta Neurol Belg. 2015;115:39–45. [DOI] [PubMed]

96.

Frimpong-Manson K, Ortiz YT, McMahon LR, Wilkerson JL. Advances in understanding migraine pathophysiology: a bench to bedside review of research insights and therapeutics. Front Mol Neurosci. 2024;17:1355281. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

97.

Smith DA, Boutros NN, Schwarzkopf SB. Reliability of P50 auditory event-related potential indices of sensory gating. Psychophysiology. 1994;31:495–502. [DOI] [PubMed]

98.

Pearl PL, Beal JC, Eisermann M, Misra S, Plouin P, Moshe SL, et al. Normal EEG in Wakefulness and Sleep: Preterm; Term; Infant; Adolescent. In: Niedermeyer E, da Silva FL, editors. Electroencephalography, Basic Principles and Clinical Applications. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2018. pp. 167–201.

99.

Gjini K, Sundaresan K, Boutros NN. Electroencephalographic evidence of sensory gating in the occipital visual cortex. Neuroreport. 2008;19:1519–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

100.

Husain AM. Current Practice of Clinical Electroencephalography. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2024.

101.

Kural MA, Duez L, Hansen VS, Larsson PG, Rampp S, Schulz R, et al. Criteria for defining interictal epileptiform discharges in EEG: A clinical validation study. Neurology. 2020;94:e2139–47. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

102.

Hughes JR, Taber JE, Fino JJ. The effect of spikes and spike-free epochs on topographic brain maps. Clin Electroencephalogr. 1991;22:150–60. [DOI] [PubMed]

103.

Gavaret M, Trébuchon A, Bartolomei F, Marquis P, McGonigal A, Wendling F, et al. Source localization of scalp-EEG interictal spikes in posterior cortex epilepsies investigated by HR-EEG and SEEG. Epilepsia. 2009;50:276–89. [DOI] [PubMed]

104.

Zauli FM, Vecchio MD, Pigorini A, Russo S, Massimini M, Sartori I, et al. Localizing hidden Interictal Epileptiform Discharges with simultaneous intracerebral and scalp high-density EEG recordings. J Neurosci Methods. 2024;409:110193. [DOI] [PubMed]

105.

John ER, Ahn H, Prichep L, Trepetin M, Brown D, Kaye H. Developmental equations for the electroencephalogram. Science. 1980;210:1255–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

106.

Statgraphics Centurion (Version 19. 1) [Software]. Statgraphics Technologies, Inc.; [cited 2024 Jul]. Available from: https://www.statgraphics.com/download19

107.

Gish H. A probabilistic approach to the understanding and training of neural network classifiers. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing; 1990 Apr 3–6; Albuquerque, USA. IEEE; 1990. pp. 1361–4. [DOI]

108.

Lee HKH. Bayesian Nonparametrics via Neural Networks. Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics; 2004.

109.

Efron B, Tibshirani R. Bootstrap Methods for Standard Errors, Confidence Intervals, and Other Measures of Statistical Accuracy. Statist Sci. 1986;1:54–75. [DOI]

110.

Friedman M. The Use of Ranks to Avoid the Assumption of Normality Implicit in the Analysis of Variance. J Am Stat Assoc. 1937;32:675–701. [DOI]

111.

Pascual-Marqui RD. Standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA): technical details. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2002;24 Suppl D:5–12. [PubMed]

112.

Gomez JF, Thatcher RW. Frequency domain equivalence between potentials and currents using LORETA. Int J Neurosci. 2001;107:161–71. [DOI] [PubMed]

113.

NeuroGuide: EEG and QEEG analysis software (Version 3. 3.2) [Software]. Applied Neuroscience, Inc.; [cited 2024 Jul]. Available from: https://appliedneuroscience.com/neuroguide/

114.

Storebø OJ, Storm MRO, Pereira Ribeiro J, Skoog M, Groth C, Callesen HE, et al. Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023;3:CD009885. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

115.

Firouzi M, Kazemi K, Ahmadi M, Helfroush MS, Aarabi A. Enhanced ADHD classification through deep learning and dynamic resting state fMRI analysis. Sci Rep. 2024;14:24473. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

116.

Kim JS, Lee YJ, Shim S. What Event-Related Potential Tells Us about Brain Function: Child-Adolescent Psychiatric Perspectives. Soa Chongsonyon Chongsin Uihak. 2021;32:93–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

117.

Sawada M, Iida J, Ota T, Negoro H, Tanaka S, Sadamatsu M, et al. Effects of osmotic-release methylphenidate in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as measured by event-related potentials. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2010;64:491–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

118.

Perrottelli A, Giordano GM, Brando F, Giuliani L, Mucci A. EEG-Based Measures in At-Risk Mental State and Early Stages of Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review. Front Psychiatry. 2021;12:653642. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

119.

Hassan WA, Darweesh AEM, Abdel-Rahman A, Ahmad HEK, Hassaan SH, Noaman MM, Fahmy IFG. P300 cognitive assessment in patients with first-episode psychosis: a prospective case-control study. Middle East Curr Psychiatry. 2020;27:23. [DOI]

120.

Zhang Y, Yang T, He Y, Meng F, Zhang K, Jin X, et al. Value of P300 amplitude in the diagnosis of untreated first-episode schizophrenia and psychosis risk syndrome in children and adolescents. BMC Psychiatry. 2023;23:743. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

121.

Atagun MI, Drukker M, Hall MH, Altun IK, Tatli SZ, Guloksuz S, et al. Meta-analysis of auditory P50 sensory gating in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging. 2020;300:111078. [DOI] [PubMed]

122.

Li S, Chan SY, Higgins A, Hall MH. Sensory gating, neurocognition, social cognition and real-life functioning: a 2-year follow-up of early psychosis. Psychol Med. 2023;53:2540–52. [DOI] [PubMed]

123.

Silvestri R, Gagliano A, Calarese T, Aricò I, Cedro C, Condurso R, et al. Ictal and interictal EEG abnormalities in ADHD children recorded over night by video-polysomnography. Epilepsy Res. 2007;75:130–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

124.

Groulx-Boivin E, Bouchet T, Myers KA. Understanding of Consciousness in Absence Seizures: A Literature Review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2024;20:1345–53. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

125.

Chen G, Li Y, Dong Z, Wang R, Zhao D, Obeso I, et al. Response inhibition alterations in migraine: evidence from event-related potentials and evoked oscillations. J Headache Pain. 2020;21:119. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

126.

Shelley BP, Trimble MR, Boutros NN. Electroencephalographic cerebral dysrhythmic abnormalities in the trinity of nonepileptic general population, neuropsychiatric, and neurobehavioral disorders. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008;20:7–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

127.

Nous A, Seynaeve L, Feys O, Wens V, Tiège XD, Mierlo PV, et al. Subclinical epileptiform activity in the Alzheimer continuum: association with disease, cognition and detection method. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2024;16:19. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

128.

Ung H, Cazares C, Nanivadekar A, Kini L, Wagenaar J, Becker D, et al. Interictal epileptiform activity outside the seizure onset zone impacts cognition. Brain. 2017;140:2157–68. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

129.

Ibrahim GM, Cassel D, Morgan BR, Smith ML, Otsubo H, Ochi A, et al. Resilience of developing brain networks to interictal epileptiform discharges is associated with cognitive outcome. Brain. 2014;137:2690–702. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

130.

Tacke M, Bertsche A. Is there a rationale for treating interictal epileptic discharges in self-limiting epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes (SeLECTS)? Clin Epileptol. 2024;37:21–4. [DOI]

131.

Karadaş Ö, Shafiyev J, Karadaş AÖ, Şimşek UB, Özenç B, Özmenek ÖA. Assessment of temporal changes in cognitive effects induced by antiseizure medications in epilepsy patients. Epilepsy Behav. 2025;163:110199. [DOI] [PubMed]

132.

Strzelczyk A, Schubert-Bast S. Psychobehavioural and Cognitive Adverse Events of Anti-Seizure Medications for the Treatment of Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathies. CNS Drugs. 2022;36:1079–111. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

133.

Besag FMC, Vasey MJ. Neurocognitive Effects of Antiseizure Medications in Children and Adolescents with Epilepsy. Paediatr Drugs. 2021;23:253–86. [DOI] [PubMed]

134.

Vatansever Pınar Z, Sağer SG, Çimen İD, Çağ Y. The Effect of Levetiracetam and Valproic Acid Treatment on Anger and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Clinical Features in Children and Adolescents with Epilepsy: A Prospective Study. Paediatr Drugs. 2024;26:753–65. [DOI] [PubMed]

135.

Warsi NM, Wong SM, Gorodetsky C, Suresh H, Arski ON, Ebden M, et al. Which is more deleterious to cognitive performance? Interictal epileptiform discharges vs anti-seizure medication. Epilepsia. 2023;64:e75–81. [DOI] [PubMed]

136.

Mermi Dibek D, Eraslan Boz H, Öztura İ, Baklan B. Investigation of the Effect of Antiseizure Medications on Cognition in Patients With Epilepsy. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2024;55:643–50. [DOI] [PubMed]

137.

Datta AN. The impact of anti-seizure medications on psychiatric disorders among children with epilepsy: Both a challenge and an opportunity? J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2023;32:177–84. [PubMed] [PMC]

138.

Swatzyna RJ, Morrow LM, Collins DM, Barr EA, Roark AJ, Turner RP. Evidentiary Significance of Routine EEG in Refractory Cases: A Paradigm Shift in Psychiatry. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2024:15500594231221313. [DOI] [PubMed]

139.

Radonjić NV, Bellato A, Khoury NM, Cortese S, Faraone SV. Nonstimulant Medications for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. CNS Drugs. 2023;37:381–97. [DOI] [PubMed]

140.

Blader JC, Pliszka SR, Kafantaris V, Foley CA, Carlson GA, Crowell JA, et al. Stepped Treatment for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Aggressive Behavior: A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Adjunctive Risperidone, Divalproex Sodium, or Placebo After Stimulant Medication Optimization. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021;60:236–51. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]