Table Info

Table 1.

Neuroprotective mechanism: pathways and molecular targets for neural cell preservation

Mechanism category	Specific action	Molecular targets/effects	Neuroprotective outcome	References
Antioxidant defense	Direct ROS/RNS scavenging	O₂, OH, ONOO⁻, H₂O₂	Prevents oxidative damage to neurons and glial cells	[25]
Antioxidant signaling	Nrf2/ARE pathway activation	HO-1, NQO1, γ-GCS upregulation	Enhanced cellular antioxidant capacity	[26]
Mitochondrial protection	Complex I-IV activity enhancement	Electron transport chain efficiency	Improved neuronal energy metabolism	[27]
Membrane stabilization	Phospholipid organization	Membrane fluidity and integrity	Enhanced synaptic function and plasticity	[28]
Anti-inflammatory	Microglial activation suppression	TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 reduction	Decreased neuroinflammation	[29]
Protein aggregation	Amyloid-β fibril prevention	Direct binding to Aβ monomers	Reduced amyloid plaque formation	[30]
Protein homeostasis	α-Synuclein aggregation inhibition	α-Syn oligomer disruption	Prevention of Lewy body formation	[31]
Apoptosis control	Bcl-2/Bax ratio modulation	Caspase cascade regulation	Reduced neuronal death	[32]
Autophagy regulation	mTOR pathway modulation	LC3-II, p62 regulation	Enhanced cellular waste clearance	[33]
Metal ion homeostasis	Iron/Copper chelation	Metal-induced oxidation prevention	Protected neural tissue integrity	[34]
Synaptic function	BDNF expression enhancement	TrkB signaling activation	Improved neural plasticity	[35]
Protein quality control	Heat shock response activation	HSP70, HSP90 induction	Enhanced protein folding capacity	[36]
Blood-brain barrier	Tight junction protection	Occludin/claudin expression	Maintained BBB integrity	[37]
Glial support	Astrocyte function modulation	GFAP regulation	Enhanced neuronal support	[38]
Axonal transport	Microtubule stabilization	Tau phosphorylation reduction	Preserved axonal function	[39]
DNA protection	PARP-1 modulation	DNA repair enhancement	Maintained genomic stability	[40]
Calcium homeostasis	Ca²⁺ channel regulation	Intracellular calcium balance	Protected synaptic transmission	[41]
Mitochondrial biogenesis	PGC-1α activation	Enhanced mitochondrial function	Improved cellular energy status	[42]
Neurotransmitter balance	MAO inhibition	Dopamine/serotonin regulation	Enhanced neurotransmission	[43]

ARE: antioxidant response elements; Aβ: amyloid-beta; BBB: blood-brain barrier; BCL-2: B-cell lymphoma 2; BDNF: brain-derived neurotrophic factor; γ-GCS: gamma-glutamyl cysteine synthetase; GFAP: glial fibrillary acidic protein; HO-1: heme oxygenase 1; HSP: heat shock proteins; IL-1β: interleukin-1β; LC3-II: LC3-phosphatidylethanolamine conjugate; MAO: monoamine oxidase; mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin; Nrf2: nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; NQO1: quinone oxidoreductase 1; ONOO⁻: peroxynitrite; PARP-1: poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1; PGC-1α: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha; RNS: reactive nitrogen species; ROS: reactive oxygen species; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TrkB: tropomyosin receptor kinase B

Declarations

Acknowledgments

All authors thank the Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), for supporting.

Author contributions

NK and SS: Writing—original draft, Investigation, Writing—review & editing. RK: Writing—original draft, Investigation, Writing—review & editing, Conceptualization, Supervision, Validation. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

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Funding

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Copyright

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