Stimulates the production of interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1α), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), IL-6, nitric oxide (NO), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) by macrophages

Enhances macrophage phagocytosis

Exhibits antiviral activity

Induces tumor cell apoptosis or necrosis

Comprehensive approach to modulating cellular processes

Potential for therapeutic interventions across various diseases

Targeting nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway

Targeting signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) pathway

Targeting ubiquitin proteasome pathway

Upregulates mRNA and Bcl-2 protein expression

Downregulates monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP) and NF-κB protein expression

Suppresses Bax, cleaved caspase-3, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α expression

Restricts DNA replication

Inhibits the cell cycle progression

Promotes apoptosis

Inhibits inflammatory pathways mediated by NF-κB and activator protein-1 (AP-1)

Suppresses the expression of chemokines, preventing leukocyte migration

Modulates key inflammatory modulators including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, MCP-1, PGE2, and TNF

Inhibits NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways

Stimulates the production of IL-10

Induces pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, and interferon gamma (IFN-γ)

Enhances phagocytosis of macrophages

Modifies antibody production

Inhibits the classical complement pathway

Regulation of metabolic profiling

Modulation of the MAPK signaling pathway

Inhibits COX-2

Suppresses inducible NO synthase (iNOS)

Blocks lipoxygenase (LOX)

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), Janus kinase (JAK)/STAT, MAPK, NF-κB, and PI3K-Akt-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), influencing gene, protein, and enzyme activity in disease regulation

Interacts with molecules like Toll-like receptors (TLRs), NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes, and gut microbiota, impacting the immune system and gut-brain axis

Inhibits activation of inhibitory kappa B (IκB), consequently blocking the activation and release of NF-κB from the cytoplasmic IκB complex

Directly binds to NF-κB, preventing its interaction with DNA

Modulates TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), and alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA)

Prevents inflammation and fibrosis in lung tissue

Inhibits increases in TNF-α, IL-6, and TGF-β

Inhibiting COX-2 and LOX pathways

Modulating the MAPK, Akt, and NF-κB signaling pathways

Modulating inflammation-related oxidative stress-related cell signaling pathways

Activation or deactivation of key pathways such as NF-κB, MAPKs, and transcription factor

Inhibits the expression of COX-2 and iNOS, reducing levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, TNF-α, and PGE2, and modulating NF-κB expression

Downregulates oncogenes cellular myelocytomatosis (c-Myc) and Harvey rat sarcoma viral oncogene (H-ras), modifies p53 expression, and induces apoptosis by decreasing the transcription activity of E2 promoter binding factor 1 (E2F1)

Inhibits inflammatory cell activation and function, modulating NF-κB, MAPK, and JAK/STAT pathways

Blocks TLR4 signaling, halting NF-κB activation and cytokine production, while suppressing COX-2 and iNOS expression

Suppresses NLRP3 inflammasome activation, reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS), inhibiting NLRP3 expression, and preventing caspase-1 and IL-1β cleavage

Attenuates inflammation caused by TNF-α, NO, and PGE2, nitrotyrosine, iNOS, COX-2, and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)

Inhibits p65 translocation by blocking IκB phosphorylation in signaling pathway studies

Increases peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) activity

Antagonizes NF-κB or AP-1 transcriptional activation of inflammatory genes

Blocks TNF-α-mediated induction of inflammatory cascades

Activation of sirtuin-1 (Sirt-1) is implicated in mediating these effects

Sirt-1, acting as a deacetylase, plays a crucial role in immune tolerance by inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB/STAT pathway and reducing the production of inflammatory factors

Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity

Modulation of the MAPK/NF-κB pathway, etc.

Inhibition of the IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway

Inhibits neuroinflammation by targeting the NF-κB activation pathway

Reduces the production of pro-inflammatory mediators in lipopolysaccharide activated BV-2 microglia, including TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2

Neuroprotective effects by preventing neurotoxicity caused by microglia-conditioned media, as evidenced by increased expression of neuronal microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP-2) protein

Downregulates inflammatory cytokine expression

Suppresses AP-1, MAPK, and NF-κB pathways in keratinocytes

Induces autophagy by decreasing mTOR activity

Inactivates Akt and protein kinase C (PKC) activities

Protects cells from oxidative stress-induced cell death

Modulates the immune system

Influences expression and activity of cytokines, chemokines, transcription factors, and signaling molecules

Targets NF-κB, STAT3, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and PPAR pathways