Table Info

Table 2.

Health benefits of psoralidin and key molecular targets

Biological effect	Psoralidin source	In vitro/in vivo	Study model	Drug concentration	Test/Assay	Molecular targets	References
Anti-bacterial	Seed extract	In vivo	Shigella sonnei, Shigella flexneri	200 µg/disc	Disc diffusion method	NA	[69]
Anti-bacterial	Hexane extract from seeds	In vivo	Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus	90–150 µg/mL	Inhibition assay	NA	[76]
Anti-diabetic	Ethanolic extract from seeds	In vitro	NA	10 µM	PTP1B, VHR, PPase1	↓Tyrosine phosphatase 1B	[70]
Anti-inflammatory	Methanolic extract from seeds	In vitro	RBL-2H3	30–100 µM	β-hexosaminidase bioassay	↓Hexosaminidase release	[77]
	Methanolic extract from seeds	In vitro	Mice peritoneal exudate cells	29 µM	NO production Assay	↓NO	[78]
	Commercial	In vitro, In vivo	HFL-1, MRC-5, BALB/c mice	50–100 µM	Luciferase reporter gene assay, ITc assay	↓COX-2, PGE2 ↓PI3K/Akt, NF-кB ↓LTB4 ↑TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-6, IL-1α/β	[79]
	Methanolic extract from seeds	In vitro	RAW 264.7	1–30 µM	-	↓PI3K/Akt ↓iNOS	[80]
	Commercial	In vivo	Osteoarthritic chondrocytic pellet cultures	1–50 µM	Biochemical, Immunological, Histological analysis	↑Cartilaginous matrix ↑GAG/DNA ratio ↓MMP13, MMP1, MMP3	[81]
	Ethanolic extract from roots	In vitro	RAW 264.7	20 µM	NO production assay, α-glucosidase inhibitor assay	↓α-glucosidase	[82]
Anti-depressant	Seed	In vivo	ICR mice	20–60 mg/kg	Forced Swimming Test, Open Field Test	↑Swimming behaviour ↑5-HIAA, DA ↓CRF, ACTH, corticosterone	[83]
Anti-depressant	Seed	In vitro	N2A	160 µM	CRF promoter activity assay	↓CRF promoter acitivity ↓ CRF transcription	[84]
SARS-CoV	Ethanolic extract from seeds	In vivo	E. coli	NA	PLpro inhibition assay	↓PLpro	[85]
SARS-CoV	NA	In silico	NA	NA	Molecular Docking	↓Furin	[86]
Anti-protozoal	Methanolic extract from fruits	In vivo	Ichthyophthirius multifiliis	1 mg/L	Efficacy assay	↓Theronts number	[87]
Neuroprotective	Ethanolic extract from seeds	In vitro	BV-2, HT22	1.25–5 µM	CCK assay	↓NO	[88]
Neuroprotective	Commercial	In vivo	Cerebral cortices and hippocampi from ICR mice	1–20 µM	PSD 95/VGLUT1-positive clusters quantification	↑Arc, Egr1, c-fos ↑p-ERK1/2 ↑PSD 95/VGLUT1-cluster	[89]
Vasodilatory	Ethanolic extract from seeds	In vivo	Sprague Dawley rats, HEK293	NA	Electrophysiology	Aortic ring relaxation ↓hTRPC3 current	[90]
Osteoprotective	Commercial	In vitro	Rat calvarial osteoblasts	1 µM	ALP and TRAP activity	↑Osterix, Runx-2, IGF-1, β-catenin OPG ↓RANKL ↓TRAP	[91]
	Commercial	In vitro, In vivo	Bone marrow macrophages, ICR mice	1–50 µM 5–50 mg/Kg	TRAP assay, Bone absorption assay, F-actin labelling	↓TRAP-positive cells ↓F-actin ring formation ↓p-P38, p-JNK, p-ERK1/2, RANKL	[92]
	Ethyl-acetate extract from seeds	In vitro, In vivo	BMSCs, Sprague Dawley rats	10 mg/kg	DEXA, MicroCT, TRAP, ORO staining	↓TRAP ↑p-PI3K, p-Akt ↑HO-1	[93]
	Commercial	In vitro	Rat chondrocytes	1–20 µM	Caspase-3 and Caspase-9 activity assay, NO assay	↑Bcl-2 ↓Bax ↓NF-кB nuclear localization	[94]
	Commercial	In vitro	BMSCs, MC3T3-E1, 3T3-L1	0.001–20 µM	ALP, ORO staining	↑ALP ↑BSP, OCN ↓PPAR δ, CEBPα, LPL, Fabp4	[95]
	Commercial	In vitro, In vivo	BMSCs, C57BL/6J mice	1–10 µM 10 mg/kg	ARS, ALP, and ORO staining, MicroCT	↑Runx-2, Osterix, OCN ↓PPAR γ, Fabp4, LPL	[96]
Anti-vitiligo	Ethanolic extract from whole plant	In vitro	NA	NA	HPLC, tyrosinase activity	↑Tyrosinase	[64]
Psoriasis	Ethanolic extract from seeds	In vivo	Pigs and mice	NA	H&E staining	No effect	[97]
Cardioprotective	Commercial	In vivo, In vitro	BALB/c mice, HL-1	25 mg/kg 20–100 µM	Echocardiography evaluation, LDH release assessment	↓CK, AST, BUN ↑ALB ↓ROS, LDH	[98]
Anti-fungal	Hexane extract from seeds	In vivo	Candida albicans, Trichophyton rubrum	160–180 µg/mL	Inhibition assay	NA	[76]
Anti-septic	Ethanolic extract	In vivo	CLP-injured mice	50 mg/kg	Sepsis score analysis	↓Sepsis score ↓LDH, AST, BUN, CK ↑ALB ↑WBC, LYM, MID, GRA, PLT	[99]

ACTH: adrenocorticotropic hormone; ALB: albumin; ALP: alkaline phosphatase; Arc: activity-dependent cytoskeleton associated protein; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; Bax: B-cell leukemia/lymphoma 2 protein associated X protein; Bcl-2: B-cell leukemia/lymphoma 2 protein; BMSCs: bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells; BSP: bone sialoprotein; BUN: blood urea nitrogen; CCK: cholecystokinin; CEBPα: CAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha; c-fos: fos proto-oncogene; CK: creatine kinase; CLP: cecal ligation and puncture; COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2; CRF: corticotropin releasing factor; DA: dopamine; Egr1: early growth response protein 1; Fabp4: fatty acid-binding protein 4; GRA: glucocorticoid receptor agonists; HEK: human embryonic kidney; 5-HIAA: 5-hydroxy indoleacetic acid; HO-1: heme oxygenase-1; IGF-1: insulin-like growth factor 1; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; p-JNK: phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; LPL: lipoprotein lipase; LYM: lymphocyte; NO: nitric oxide; OCN: osteocalcin; OPG: osteoprotegerin; p-Akt: phosphorylated protein kinase B; p-ERK1/2: phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2; p-PI3K: phosphorylated-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PLpro: papain-like protease; PLT: platelet count; PPAR δ: peroxisome proliferator activated receptor delta; PSD 95: post-synaptic density 95; PTP1B: protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B; RANKL: receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand; ROS: reactive oxygen species; Runx-2: runt-related transcription factor 2; SARS-CoV: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha; TRAP: tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase; VGLUT1: vesicular glutamate transporter 1; WBC: white blood cell; NA: not available

Declarations

Author contributions

ACB: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing—review & editing. TT and ACB: Data curation, Visualization, Writing—original draft. TT, AC, DJ, UJ, NA, and CCK: Formal analysis. TT, DJ, AC, and UJ: Investigation. TT, UJ, DJ, AC, and NA: Methodology.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Funding

This work was funded by Indian Council of Medical Research-India Cancer Research Consortium (ICMR-ICRC) [No.5/13/4/ACB/ICRC/2020/NCD-III], ICMR AdHOC [2021-10573/GENOMIC/ADHOC-BMS]; Central Council for Research in Homeopathy (CCRH) [F.No.17-30/2023-24/CCRH/Tech/Coll./DU Cervical Cancer Phase-II/498]; Institution of Eminence, University of Delhi [Ref. No./IoE/2023-24/12/FRP] to ACB is thankfully acknowledged. In addition to the above funding support, the research has received several non-funding financial support such as Senior Research Fellowship to TT [764/(CSIR-UGC NET JUNE 2019)] by University Grants Commission (UGC), and Senior Research Fellowship to DJ [09/0045/(11635)/2021-EMR-1] and AC [09/0045(12901)/2022-EMR-1] by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

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