Table Info

Table 2.

Encapsulation of hydrophobic materials in yeast cells

Hydrophobic compound	Encapsulation process	Yeast	Effects of encapsulation	Reference
Pure curcumin and temulawak extract	Diffusion with an incubator shaker (35°–55°C, 18 h) and vacuum-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	The highest encapsulation efficiency/yield is at 45°C, while the lowest is at 35°C.	[69]
Curcumin	Osmoporation	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	-Improvement of EE (60%); -Retained over 80% of antioxidant activity after exposure to high temperatures (150°C) and artificial light for 50 days; -Increase 5.7-fold in photochemical stability, with a half-life of 181 days under illumination conditions.	[47]
Curcumin	Pressure-facilitated infusion	Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Alive yeast cells, deactivated yeast cells, and yeast cell wall particles)	-EE: 18% for yeast cell wall particles, 31% alive yeast cells; 37% deactivated yeast cells; -99% bacterial inactivation of yeast cell wall particles with curcumin.	[89]
Curcumin and fisetin	Dehydration, rehydration, vacuum infusion, or incubation	Saccharomyces cerevisiae (native yeast, yeast cell wall particles)	EE: 66.6% curcumin and 64% fisetin (35% ethanol).	[38]
Curcumin	Controlled evaporation	Saccharomyces cerevisiae (glucan particles)	EE: 88.5%.	[88]
Curcumin	Diffusion and freeze-drying	Chlorella Vulgaris	EE: 98%.	[87]
Curcumin and ibuprofen	Spray drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast glucan particles)	EE: 102% curcumin; 64.3% ibuprofen.	[67]
Curcumin	Vacuum infusion	Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Intact yeast cells, plasmolyzed yeast, i.e., yeast cell wall particles)	EE: 99.7% (90°C for 1 min).	[65]
Mentha pulegium essential oil	Plasmolysis pretreatment, diffusion, and freeze-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	EE: 36%.	[59]
Manuka essential oil	Vacuum infusion method	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	EE: 16.8 mg/g ± 1.8 mg/g (14.24% w/v the concentration of oil in the encapsulation solution).	[74]
Purslane seed oil	Pretreatments: Non-plasmolyzed; emulsification plasmolyzed, diffusion and freeze-drying; extra-coating with carboxymethylcellulose	Saccharomyces cerevisiae [non-plasmolyzed, plasmolyzed, and plasmolyzed carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC)-coated]	-EE: 53–65%; -The plasmolysis; -Treatment increased EE and decreased the peroxide value of oil; -The lowest oxidation rate plasmolyzed CMC-coated microcapsules.	[70]
Menhaden fish oil	Pretreatments: autolysis or enzymatic hydrolysis; emulsification, diffusion, and freeze-drying; extra-coating with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	-Autolysis at 55°C, combined with 1.5% ethyl acetate pretreatment (EE: 90%); -Stable for 30 days under < 70% RH.	[25]
Black cumin seed oil	Plasmolysis pretreatment, diffusion, and freeze-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	-EE: 59.97%, plasmolyzed loaded yeast capsules; -EE: 39.18%, non-plasmolyzed loaded yeast capsules.	[66]
Wheat germ oil	Alive, non-plasmolyzed, and plasmolyzed, freeze-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	EE: 43.1%, plasmolyzed loaded yeast capsules.	[91]
Oil blends (rapeseed, camelina, black cumin, evening primrose, wheat germ, and rice bran oil)	Autolysis, microencapsulation by ultrasound process, and freeze-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	EE: 8.25–13.98%.	[92]
Flavonoid: quercetin	Diffusion and freeze-drying	Yarrowia lipolytica W29	Longer lifetime of the long-term quercetin population.	[73]
Flavonoid: fisetin	Osmotic dehydration, rehydration, and internalization	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Improvement of EE (33%) and internalized fisetin content (1.199 mg) via osmoporation.	[63]
Flavonoid: fisetin	Sonoprocessing and either spray-drying or freeze-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Better EE, encapsulation yield, and antioxidant activity for spray-dried microcapsules.	[82]
Flavonoid: taxifolin	Ultrasonic micro-structuring and diffusion	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	-EE: 61.7% at 37°C compared to 28°C; -More than 1.5 times higher antioxidant activity and bioavailability after in vitro digestion via encapsulation.	[9]
Terpene: carvacrol	Diffusion and freeze-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	-EE: 60%; -The highest larvicidal activity and lower volatility on Rhipicephalus microplus.	[10]
Terpene: limonene	Emulsification and high-pressure spraying process (concentrated powder form technology)	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	EE of concentrated powder form technology: 85.9%.	[44]
Terpene: limonene	Diffusion and spray-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	-a_w < 0.7: no limonene release; -Thermostable and resistant up to 263°C; the release of limonene started above 243°C.	[20]
Terpene: limonene, carvone, and linalool	Diffusion	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	The process of encapsulation was mainly passive diffusion with slightly active transportation.	[64]
Stilbenes: resveratrol	Diffusion and freeze-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	-2–3 times higher the water solubility; -The slower photodecomposition; -Stronger antioxidant activity.	[71]
Carotenoids: β-carotene	Magnetic agitation	Yarrowia lipolytica	Optimum EE: 42.8 μg/g β-carotene with Yarrowia lipolytica cultured at pH 4.5, a medium volume equal to 115 mL, and agitation speed at 211 r/min.	[4]
Carotenoids: β-carotene	Ultrasound-assisted diffusion and freeze-drying	Yarrowia lipolytica W29	Ultrasound treatment was four times higher than chloroform-mediated encapsulation.	[34]
Vitamin: cholecalciferol (vitamin D₃)	Diffusion and spray-drying or freeze-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	-Highest EE: plasmolyzed and spray-dried capsules, approximately 76%; -Diffusion mechanism: fickian mechanism; -Lower release rate in gastric conditions (up to 35.75%) than in intestinal conditions (up to 97.9%).	[72]
Vitamin: cholecalciferol (vitamin D₃)	Diffusion and spray-drying or freeze-drying	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	-53% protection against UV and over 90% protection against thermal treatment (80°C, 1 h) -Over 90% encapsulated vitamin D3 in baked bread.	[81]

EE: encapsulation efficiency; CMC: carboxy methyl cellulose; a_w: water activity; RH: relative humidity; UV: ultraviolet

Declarations

Author contributions

DGK, ABB, GK, and BS: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. EC: Validation, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

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