Table Info

Table 6.

Summary of research supporting pistachio’s health benefits

Health benefits	Type of study	Principals results	References
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential	RCT: parallel-design study in healthy individuals, n = 44 G1: regular diet, n = 22 G2: regular diet + pistachios, n = 22	↑: AOP ↓: MDA	[56]
	RCT: prospective study in healthy young men, n = 32	↑: SOD ↓: TOS, MDA, LOOH, IL-6 =: CRP, TNF-α	[57]
	In vitro assay in macrophages cell line J774-A1 stimulated with LPS (from Escherichia coli 1.0 µg/mL)	↓: TNF-α, IL-1β, NO, ROS, MDA, iNOS, COX-2	[58]
	In vivo assay with Sprague-Dawley male rats with paw edema induced by CAR, n = 30 CAR: n = 10 CAR + NP: n = 10 CAR + RP: n = 10	With NP ↓: MPO, edema volume, number of inflammatory cells Normal appearance of muscle fibers With RP No significant changes	[58]
Cardioprotective and antihypertensive effects	RCT: parallel-design study in healthy individuals. n = 44 G1: regular diet, n = 22 G2: regular diet + pistachios, n = 22	↑: HDL ↓: TC =: LDL, TG	[56]
	RCT: prospective study in healthy young men, n = 32	↑: BAFMVD ↓: LDL, TC, TG, CT/HDL, LDL/HDL =: HDL, blood pressure	[57]
	RCT: parallel-design study in individuals with hyperlipemia, n = 56 G1: regular diet, n = 27 G2: regular diet + pistachios, n = 29	↑: HDL, BAFMVD ↓: LDL, TC/HDL, PWV	[59]
	In vitro assays: ACE enzyme inhibitory activity by pistachio peptides	↓: confirmation of ACE inhibitory activity	[60]
Glycemic control and T2-DM	RCCT: Crossover clinical trial in prediabetic patients, n = 54	↓: glycemia, insulin, HOMA-IR, IL-18 =: HbA1c	[61]
	RCT: Parallel-design study in individuals with hyperlipemia, n = 56 G1: regular diet, n = 27 G2: regular diet + pistachios. n = 29	↓: glycemia	[59]
	RCCT: double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in prediabetic individuals, n = 48	↓: glycemia, HbA1c =: HOMA-IR	[62]
	RCT: prospective study in healthy young men, n = 32	↓: blood glucose	[57]
	RCT: patients with metabolic syndrome, n = 10	↓: glycemic index	[63]
	In vitro assay: α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymatic activity	↓: α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity	[53]
Weight control	RCT: patients with obesity, n = 52	↓: BMI, body weight	[64]
Weight control	RCCT: Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in prediabetic individuals	↓: BMI	[62]
Gut microbiota modulation and antimicrobial effect	Animal’s trial: healthy rats and with T1-DM G1: Healthy animals + control diet, n = 6 G2: Healthy animals + pistachio diet, n = 6 G3: diabetic animals + control diet, n = 6 G4: diabetic animals + pistachio diet, n = 6	↑: fecal lactobacilli and bifidobacterial irmicutes population in healthy animals, Bifidobacterium genus in diabetic rats ↓: Bacteroidetes levels in healthy animals	[65]
	Animal’s trial: mice fed a HFD G1: control animals + standard diet, n = 8 G2: obese animals + HFD, n = 8 G3: obese animals + HFD+pistachio, n = 8	↑: Parabacteroides, Dorea, Allobaculum, Turicibacter, Lactobacillus, Anaeroplasma, Oscillospira, Desulfovibrio, Coprobacillus, Bilophila ↓: Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes	[66]
	RCCT: randomized cross-over, n = 16	↑: LAB =: Bifidobacterium	[67]
	In vitro: antimicrobial potential of phenolic extracts from NP and RP. ATCC strains	↑: bactericidal activity on L. monocytogenes, Staphylococcus (S.) aureus and Methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains (NP > RP)	[68]

↑: increase; ↓: decrease; =: remains unchanged; n: number of individuals. RCT: randomized controlled trial; RCCT: randomized crossover clinical trial; AOP: antioxidant potencial; MDA: malonaldehyde; SOD: superoxide dismutase; TOS: total oxidant status; LOOH: lipid hydroperoxides; IL-6: interleukin-6; CRP: C-reactive protein; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α; NO: nitric oxide; ROS: reactive oxygen species; iNOS: inducible NO synthetase; COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2; NP: natural pistachio; RP: roasted pistachio; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; CAR: carrageenan; MPO: myeloperoxidase; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triacyclglycerols; BAFMVD: brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation; PWV: pulse wave velocity; ACE: angiotensin-converting enzyme; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; HbA1c: glycated hemoglobin A1c; BMI: body mass index; HFD: high-fat diet; ATCC: American Type Culture Collection; LAB: lactic acid bacteria; T2-DM: type 2 diabetes mellitus

Declarations

Author contributions

JRG: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft. MP: Conceptualization Investigation, Writing—original draft, Supervision. MCP: Writing—review & editing, Supervision. MVS: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This work was financially supported by Ministerio Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (MINCyT); Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica (ANPCyT); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); and Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

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