Table Info

Table 1.

Protein particles usually employed to stabilize Pickering emulsions (publications since 2020)

Proteins	Modifications	Encapsulated bioactive	Characteristics of the emulsions	Reference
Whey protein	Glycosylated whey protein isolate-chitosan complexes	Algal oil [docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)]	-Better thermal, storage, and oxidative stability. -Efficient release of free fatty acids during digestion. -Increased bioavailability of DHA.	[20]
	Whey protein isolate fibril complexed with hordein (main storage protein in barley seeds, with high content of hydrophobic aminoacids) by anti-solvent precipitation method at pH 2.5.	Quercetin	Enhanced bioaccessibility of quercetin.	[21]
	Pectin methyl esterase-responsive nanocomplex prepared using heat-induced whey protein isolate and high methoxyl pectin (pH 4.5, 85°C, 15 min).	Thyme essential oil	-pH stability (stabilizing effect of hydrophobic, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interactions). -Pectin methyl esterase triggers the demethylation of high methoxyl pectin within the Pickering emulsion, conferring response characteristics to the enzyme (control of the thyme essential oil release).	[22]
	Whey protein isolate-vanillin complexes (Schiff-base reaction)	Vitamin E	-Bacteriostatic agent. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of vitamin E in the small intestine (81%).	[23]
	Whey protein gel particles prepared by heat-induced, enzyme cross-linking and calcium ion cross-linking methods	CoQ10	-Increased bioavailability of CoQ10. -Stability of emulsions 4°C for 28 days.	[24]
	Whey protein with tannic acid, gallic acid, tea polyphenol, and vanillic acid	Vitamin D	-Enhanced bioaccessibility of vitamin D. -Enhanced stability of the emulsions.	[25]
	Whey protein isolate covalently conjugated with epigallocatechin-3-gallate	Lactiplantibacillus plantarum	Stable systems for L. plantarum delivery.	[26]
	Whey protein isolate glycosylated with short chain inulin/cyanidin 3-glucoside	Curcumin	Increased bioaccessibility of curcumin.	[27]
	Heat-denatured whey protein	DHA oil	Enhanced bioaccessibility of DHA.	[28]
	Resveratrol crystals dissolved in ethanol, added to soy proteins dispersed in deionized water at different pH	Vitamin D3	Protection of resveratrol against precipitation and oxidation.	[29]
	Whey protein isolate fibrils	Nobiletin	-Improved long term stability. -Extent of lipolysis. -Increased nobiletin bioaccessibility.	[30]
	Whey protein isolate nanofibers prepared with subcritical water	Curcumin	Better loading effect and antioxidant activities.	[31]
	Whey protein isolate/epigallocatechin-3-gallate covalent conjugates obtained by free-radical induction reaction	Lactiplantibacillus plantarum	Enhanced viable cell count after 14 days of storage and gastro-intestinal digestion.	[32]
	Whey protein isolate microgel cross-linked with organic acids (tannic and citric acids)	Roasted coffee oil	Tannic acid resulted in a suitable crosslinker for providing stability to whey protein isolate emulsions.	[33]
	Gel protein isolate gel particles obtained by high hydrostatic pressure treatments	Curcumin	-High loading efficiency of curcumin. -Stability against light degradation.	[34]
	Whey protein isolate microgels, natural whey protein isolate, Gum arabic, whey protein isolate combined with gum arabic, maltodextrin, and modified starch (Capsul^®)	Pomegranate seed oil	-All particles protected pomegranate seed oil from oxidation. -Whey protein isolate combined with modified starch was protecting the best.	[35]
Zein protein	Zein and tannic acid complexes	Cinnamon essential oil	-Tannic acid decreases the superficial tension and accelerates zein adsorption. -Controlled release of cinnamon essential oil. -Antimicrobial activity against spoilage organisms.	[36]
	Zein non-covalently bonded sodium abietate	Avermectin (pesticide) dissolved in tea tree oil	-Delivery system for pesticides (faster release at acidic or alkalyne conditions in comparison with neutral ones). -Enhanced UV-resistance of avermectin. -Antibacterial and insecticidal activities in vitro.	[37]
	Pea protein isolate-zein complex particle prepared by hydrophobic interactions	Curcumin	-Good storage stability (up to 30 days). -Ionic strength resistance (up to 500 mM). -High-temperature stability (80°C, 48 h). -pH stability (pH 2–9). -Enhanced stability of curcumin.	[38]
	Zein-gallic acid covalent complex prepared by alkali treatment	Cinnamon essential oil	Pickering emulsions incorporated into chitosan films facilitated a slow release of the essential oil, extending the antimicrobial activity of the films.	[39]
	Zein/tannic acid nanoparticles are obtained by covalent interactions of tannic acid with zein amino groups, followed by self-assembling to form nanoparticles through antisolvent precipitation	Oregano oil	-Successful incorporation of the emulsions into konjac glucomannan films. -Enhanced antibacterial and antioxidant activities of the films.	[40]
	Zein/hyaluronic acid nanoparticles obtained by non-covalent interaction	Astaxanthin	-Stability of emulsions towards pepsin hydrolysis. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of astaxanthin.	[41]
	Zein-tannic acid-sodium alginate complexes	β-carotene	-Good pH and ionic strength stability. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of fatty acids and carotene. -Rheological properties support the potential application of edible ink.	[42]
	Covalent and non-covalent zein-gallic acid composite nanoparticles	Astaxanthin	Covalently bonded composites significantly delayed the oxidation of the encapsulated algal oil, protected astaxanthin from heat, and increased its bioaccessibility.	[43]
	Zein nanoparticles and gum Arabic	Peach polyphenols	-Improved stability of peach polyphenols during UV irradiation, storage, and heating. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of polyphenols.	[44]
	Zein nanoparticles	Cinnamon essential oil	Enhanced antimicrobial properties and control release of chitosan/gelatin films.	[45]
	Zein-proanthocyanidins-pectin ternary composites	Curcumin	-Long term stabilized gel-like emulsions. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of curcumin.	[46]
	Zein/Adzuki bean seed coat polyphenol nanoparticles	Astaxanthin	-Enhanced stability of the emulsions against ionic strength and heat treatment. -Retaining astaxanthin after exposure to high levels of UV light irradiation. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of astaxanthin.	[47]
	Zein nanoparticles coated with bioactive glycyrrhizic acid, through cross-linking with tannic acid	Curcumin	Enhanced bioaccessibility of curcumin when orally administered.	[48]
	Zein-lecithin-epigallocatechin complex nanoparticles	Peppermint oil	Set-up of the formulation and physico-chemical characterization.	[49]
	Zein and sodium caseinate nanoparticles	Clove essential oil	-Clove essential oil-loaded zein-sodium caseinate successfully incorporated into chitosan films, decreasing the water vapor permeation. -Controlled release of clove essential oil from the films in 96 h. -Increased tensile strength and break elongation of chitosan films. -Increased antibacterial properties.	[50]
	Bare zein particles (hydrophobicity modulated by changing pH)	Lactiplantibacillus plantarum	-Optimal pH for zein particle adsorption: 6.6–8.9. -Storage stability of microorganisms at 4°C.	[51]
	Zein colloid particles	Clove essential oil	-Emulsions incorporated into chitosan films. -Enhanced antibacterial properties of the films with Pickering emulsions.	[52]
Soy protein	Green tea polysaccharide conjugates-soy protein isolate complex	Curcumin	Protection of curcumin from adverse pH, light, and temperature effects, with a retention rate of over 74.00%.	[53]
	Crosslinking soy protein isolate and chitooligosaccharide using genipin	Fucoxanthin	-Improved fucoxanthin light retention. -Theoretical support to preserve hydrophobic nutrients in commercial products.	[54]
	Soybean protein isolate-citrus pectin-gallic acid complex	β-carotene	Theoretical guidance for the design of protein-polysaccharide-polyphenol stabilized Pickering emulsions.	[55]
	Soy protein hydrolyzate microgel particles produced at various pH (3, 5, 7, and 9) with and without ultrasonication	Quercetin	-Storage stability of the emulsions. -Suitable system to efficiently encapsulate quercetin, and also for its sustainable release.	[56]
Pea protein	Ultrasound-treated pea protein isolate and mung bean starch complexes	β-carotene	-Improved stability of β-carotene. -Higher bioaccessibility of β-carotene.	[57]
	Pea protein isolate-quillaja saponin-tannic acid self-assembled nanoparticles through non-covalent interactions	Curcumin	-Theoretical support for multi-scale exploration of structure-properties relationships of nanoparticle. -Tannic acid provides additional stability to the emulsions.	[58]
	Pea protein-κ-carrageenan complexes	Curcumin	Enhanced stability of curcumin for the generation of 3D printed cake decorations.	[59]
	Pea protein isolate nanoparticles obtained by heat-assisted pH-shifting	Curcumin	Theoretical basis for fabricating a prospective delivery system for improving bioavailability of hydrophobic nutraceuticals.	[60]
	Hydrolyzed pea protein at pH 3 and overnight storage at 4°C	Thymol	Smart release of bactericidal agents.	[61]
	Pea protein-naringin complexes	Naringin	Mask the bitter taste of naringin.	[62]
	Pea protein amyloid fibrils obtained by thermal treatment of purified pea protein in an acidic environment, leading to hydrolysis and re-assembly	Lutein	Stability of lutein against ultraviolet irradiation, heating, and iron.	[63]
	Pea protein-pectin-epigallocatechin gallate complexes for extrusion 3D-printing	Cinnamaldehyde	Retain the cinnamaldehyde flavor, which supports the incorporation of emulsions in printed food.	[64]
	Pea protein and high methoxyl pectin colloidal particles	β-carotene	Enhanced stability and controlled release of β-carotene.	[65]

Declarations

Author contributions

AGZ: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. LC: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. Both authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

Both authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This work was supported by the Argentinean Agency for Scientific and Technological Promotion (ANPCyT) [PICT/2020/0482, PICT (2020)/1602]. Lucía Cassani acknowledges Consellería de Educación, Ciencia, Universidades e Formación Profesional (Xunta de Galicia) for the financial support [ED481D-2024-002]. Andrea Gomez-Zavaglia is member of the research career of CONICET. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

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