Table Info

Table 2.

Natural carbohydrate particles usually employed to stabilize Pickering emulsions (publications since 2022)

Carbohydrate particles	Modifications	Encapsulated bioactive	Characteristics of the emulsions	Reference
Starch	Starch nanoparticles obtained by heating under mildly acidic conditions	Catechin	-Catechin encapsulated in the starch nanoparticles exhibits higher water solubility and UV stability than pure ones. -Catechin-starch nanoparticle composites improve the encapsulation efficiency, water-solubility, stability of catechins, and Pickering emulsion stability.	[77]
	Debranched-waxy corn starch and chitosan	Curcumin	-Debranched-waxy corn starch and chitosan polymers lead to greater emulsifying stability and lower gel strength than native starch and chitosan-prepared emulsion. -Enhanced stability and bioaccessibility of the encapsulated curcumin.	[78]
	Cana edulis starch and starch nanoparticles modified with octenyl succinic anhydride	Curcumin	-Enhanced curcumin storage protection and controlled release. -Stabilizing Pickering emulsions has a positive effect on gut microbiota and improves the intestinal environment.	[79]
	Quinoa and maize starch nanoparticles prepared by sono-precipitation and modified with nonenyl succinic anhydride and octenyl succinic acid	Ferulic acid	-Stable emulsions against coalescence and Ostwald ripening. -Long-term stability of the emulsions. -Sustained release of ferulic acid from the strong gel network. -Encapsulation efficiency close to 99% after 15 days of storage.	[80]
	Potato starch and polyvinyl alcohol	Clove essential oil	-Efficiency of encapsulation: 58%, which ensured the antimicrobial effectiveness of clove essential oil. -Emulsions were applied for pork meat preservation, enabling the slow release of the encapsulated compound. -Prolonged preservation period (10 days) and potent inhibition of E. coli and S. aureus.	[81]
	Ultrasonic esterified corn starch	Tangerine peel essential oil	-Pickering emulsions incorporated into corn films containing purple corncob anthocyanin. -Bacteriostatic ability against E. coli and S. aureus.	[82]
	Starch nanocrystals and bacterial cellulose nanofibers	Satureja khuzestanica essential oil	Antibiofilm (Salmonella enterica) activity.	[83]
	Carboxymethyl starch/xanthan gum combinations with different ratios	Pterostilbene	-High encapsulation efficiency (91.2%), enhanced stability of pterostilbene. -Controlled release of pterostilbene in the intestinal tract.	[84]
	Butyric acid-modified porous starch	Paclitaxel	The emulsifying and sustained release capacity are significantly improved using higher substituted butyric acid-porous starch as stabilizers.	[85]
	Gliadin/gelatinized starch nanocomposites	Astaxanthin	-Emulsions with shear-thinning behavior and high solid viscoelasticity. -Suitable rheology properties for 3D printing. -Enhanced stability (90% astaxanthin was retained after heating at 95°C for 30 min) and bioaccessibility of astaxanthin.	[86]
	Acetalized starch-based nanoparticles	Curcumin	-Acetalized starch and its degradation products showed good biocompatibility. -Acid environments promote a better release of the encapsulated curcumin.	[87]
	Chayote tuber starch functionalized by zein-pectin nanoparticle	Cinnamon essential oil	-Pickering emulsions were incorporated into biodegradable and bioactive starch-based films for food packaging applications. -Improve water-resistance of the films. -Sustained release of cinnamon essential oil into food stimulants.	[88]
	Corn starch pregelatinized with a cellulose nanofiber	Basil essential oil	-Incorporation of the emulsions into edible coatings to prevent biochemical degradations and minimize color changes of mandarins. -Coated mandarins significantly suppressed quality losses, did not experience a loss of citric acid, and maintained color stability.	[89]
	Acorn starch	β-carotene	-Low solubility and swelling power, and high retrogradation and gel strength of the acorn starch. -Free/bound phenolics exhibit stronger antioxidant activity. -Outstanding effect for protecting β-carotene against ultraviolet irradiation.	[90]
	Octenyl succinic anhydride-modified corn, potato, and pea starch nanoparticles	Curcumin	-Stable emulsions against different environmental stresses (pH, ionic strength, and heating) and during 30 days of storage. -No-oiling-off observed over the storage time. -Improved protection of curcumin during storage and controlled release during in vitro digestion.	[91]
	Octenyl succinic anhydride-starch	Thymol	-Enhanced bactericidal effects against E. coli, S. aureus, and Aspergillus flavus by inducing ROS eruption, membrane lipid peroxidation, and cell shrink. -Time-sustained bactericidal effect (9 days) upon intermittent exposure to E. coli, S. aureus. and A. flavus in vitro (in comparison with thymol alone).	[92]
	Starch-fatty acid complexes prepared using different long chain fatty acids (myristic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid) and native rice starch	Curcumin	Curcumin was successfully retained after 28 days of storage stability (79.4%) and after exposure to gastrointestinal conditions (80.8%), attributed to the enhancement of the coverage of particles at the oil-water interface.	[93]
	Octenyl succinic anhydride starch/chitosan complexes	Resveratrol	-Strong stability when subjected to light, high temperature, UV radiation, and freeze-thaw treatment. -Resveratrol retention greatly improved with the increasing addition of complexes and resveratrol. -Pickering emulsions were suitable systems to overcome the stratum corneum barrier (ca. 3–5-fold increase in resveratrol deposition) in deep skin compared to bulk oil.	[94]
	Gliadin/starch nanocomposites	Astaxanthin	-Gelatinized starch improved the wettability of particles, and thus, the stability of emulsions. -Pickering emulsions stable at pH within 3 and 11, and tolerant to high ionic strength (up to 1000 mM NaCl). -Enhanced retention of astaxanthin (half-life 2.3 times longer than that in oil). -Bioaccessibility of astaxanthin ca. 1.5 times higher than that of oil.	[95]
	Starch crystals and chitosan	Curcumin	-Chitosan-coated emulsions are stable in the mouth and stomach phases, and slowly digested in the intestine phase. -Permeability of encapsulated curcumin enhanced ca. 9.5-fold compared to the curcumin solution. -Enhanced intestinal permeability of curcumin ascribed to the electrostatic mucoadhesion and reversible epithelial tight junction opening effects of the coating.	[96]
	Dihydromyricetin/high-amylose corn starch composite particles	β-carotene	Stability of β-carotene against UV irradiation, enhanced bioaccessibility and starch hydrolysis inhibition during digestion.	[97]
	2-(dimethylamine)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) grafted onto maize starch via free radical polymerization	Lipase from Candida rugosa	-Emulsions readily applied as recyclable microreactors for the n-butanol/vinyl acetate transesterification. -Catalytic activity and good recyclability.	[98]
	Oxidized high-amylose starch	β-carotene	-Stable emulsions at pH within 3 and 7, salt concentrations up to 1 M, and temperatures within –25°C and 80°C. -Storage stability for up to 30 days. -Controlled-release of β-carotene in vitro, with antioxidant activity-maintained ca. 50% of initial activity when exposed to 80°C.	[99]
	Chestnut starch nanocrystal/macadamia protein isolate complexes	Quercetin	High encapsulation efficiency for quercetin (> 93%).	[100]
	Starch-based nanoparticles obtained by nanoprecipitation and ultrasonication	Ferulic acid	Preserved ferulic bioactivities in the Pickering emulsions (anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition).	[101]
	Ultrasound and high-pressure homogenization treated starch nanoparticles	Carotenoids extracted from the peel of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis)	-Pickering nanoemulsions rich in carotenoids and total phenolic content, with high antioxidant activity and stability. -Stable emulsions to heat and freeze-thaw treatments and storage at 6°C and 25°C.	[18]
Chitosan	Cross-linked carboxymethyl cellulose/chitosan submicron particles through polyelectrolyte self-assembly method in conjunction with isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions	Piperine	-Stabilization of the emulsion’s droplets by carboxymethyl cellulose/chitosan particles. -Highly level emulsions regarding changes in pH, temperature, and ionic strength. -Controlled release of piperine in vitro in both acidic and neutral media.	[102]
	β-carboxymethyl chitosan and gelatin-A	Curcumin	Physico-chemical characterization supporting cosmeceutical applications (uptake of curcumin into fibroblasts in vitro).	[103]
	Chitosan/alginate nanoparticles and Ca²⁺	D-limonene	-Set-up of the emulsion’s formulation and encapsulation process. -Encapsulated limonene had higher activity, higher resistance to ultraviolet (UV), and higher temperature than free D-limonene.	[104]
	Self-aggregated chitosan particles prepared by a pH-responsive self-assembling method by tuning pH, degree of deacetylation, and molecular weight	Curcumin	-Networked structures generated by chitosan aggregation led to highly elastic gels more resistant to the breakdown of Pickering emulsion at ambient temperature. -Molecular weight and degree of deacetylation determine curcumin loading, encapsulation efficiency, and release profile.	[105]
	Self-assembled chitosan complexed with natural phytosterol particles	β-carotene (hydrophobic) and epigallocatechin gallate (hydrophilic)	-Storage stability at 4°C and 25°C (at least 2 months). -Suitability to co-encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic bioactive compounds, shielding them against UV exposure and long-term storage.	[106]
	Chitosan-based nanoparticles obtained by ionic gelation modified by flaxseed gum or sodium tripolyphosphate	Ferulic acid	-Complex nanoparticles had high surface activity. -Controlled topical release of ferulic acid. -Ferulic acid in the emulsion had higher penetration and retention ability in the skin dermis.	[107]
	ε-polylysine-carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles	Oregano essential oil	-Pickering emulsions incorporated into gelatin films. -The mechanical properties, barrier properties, anti-oxidation, and antibacterial properties of the films were improved with the incorporation of Pickering emulsions. -Extension of shelf life of beef and strawberries with excellent antioxidant and antibacterial properties.	[108]
	Resveratrol-grafted zein covalent conjugate combined with quaternary ammonium chitosan	Peppermint oil	Enhanced antioxidant effect against DPPH and ABTS free radicals.	[109]
	Rice peptide aggregate-chitosan complexes	Curcumin	Enhanced storage stability, lower free fatty acids release, and higher curcumin bioaccessibility (65.2% and 68.2%, respectively).	[110]
	Soy protein isolate-chitosan nanoparticles	Docohexaenoic acid (DHA)	Enhanced retention rate of DHA under storage, ionic strength, and thermal conditions.	[111]
	Soybean protein isolate/chitosan hydrochloride composite particles	Citrus essential oil	-Good storage and oxidation stabilities and rheological properties. -Preservative effect on freshly-cut apple slices.	[112]
	Chitosan and soy protein isolate colloid particles	Cinnamon essential oil	-Pickering emulsions incorporated in collagen films enhanced their thermal stability, UV-blocking properties, and water resistance. -Improved antioxidant (DPPH scavenging activity) and antimicrobial properties (E. coli, S. aureus, P. fluorescence). -4-day shelf-life extension of pork coated with the functionalized films.	[113]
	Spirulina protein-chitosan complex	Astaxanthin	-Improved the stability of astaxanthin in different environments. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of astaxanthin.	[114]
	Gallic acid modified-chitosan nanoparticles	Garlic essential oil and curcumin	-Improved bioaccessibility of garlic essential oil and curcumin. -Good biocompatibility and enhanced cellular uptake of garlic essential oil and curcumin.	[115]
	Chlorella pyrenoidosa protein-chitosan complex	Lutein	-Stability of encapsulated lutein when UV irradiated for 48 hours. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of lutein.	[116]
	Zein and chitosan nanoparticles	Citral and/or cinnamaldehyde	-Effective antifungal system (decrease of Aspergillus spp. growth and ochratoxin production). -Stable emulsions within 15 days and good sustained release ability during 9-day storage experiment.	[117]
	Phosphorylated perilla protein isolate-chitosan composite nanoparticles	β-carotene	-No coalescence during long-term storage, centrifugation, and heat treatment. -Increasing the chitosan concentration leads to a progressive strengthening of viscosity, viscoelasticity, and thixotropy-recovery capacity of the emulsions, allowing their controllable injectability and printability during 3D printing. -Enhanced stability of β-carotene in emulsions exposed to environmental stresses.	[118]
	Phytosterol/chitosan complex particles	Epigallocatechin gallate	Protection of epigallocatechin gallate from heat and pH shock	[119]
	Chitosan tripolyphosphate nanoparticles	Andrographolide	-Improved apparent digestibility coefficient of protein, fiber, carbohydrates, and energy for carps fed with the encapsulated andrographolide. -Protection of carps against koi herpes virus.	[120]
	Soybean protein isolate-chitosan composite	Cinnamon essential oil	-Encapsulation efficiency of cinnamon essential oil: 65.23%. -Stabilization of the encapsulated compound.	[121]
	Resveratrol-loaded α-lactalbumin-chitosan particles	Curcumin	-High (64%) curcumin retention up to 30 days. -Enhanced curcumin bioaccessibility.	[122]
	Chitosan with different molecular weights functionalized with protocatechuic acid by free-radical grafting reaction,	β-carotene	-Stability of β-carotene upon exposure of emulsions to ultraviolet irradiation, natural light exposure, and heat treatment. -Oxidative stability of β-carotene.	[123]
	Whey protein isolate-chitosan complexes	Apigenin	-95% of apigenin retention when emulsions are stored under refrigerated conditions. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of apigenin.	[124]
	Chitosan/guar gum nanoparticles were formed by hydrogen bond interactions between amino groups of chitosan and hydroxyl groups of guar gum.	Astaxanthin	Retention rate of astaxanthin: 86% when stored at 37°C for 30 days.	[125]
	Alginate-coated chitosan-stabilized	Tocotrienol (vitamin E)	Enhanced retention of tocotrienol upon processing and storage.	[126]
	Zein-chitosan nanoparticles	Curcumin, oil red, and oil blue	-Better chroma (based on Lab* values) with lower incorporation of pigments (under the same amount of pigment, the saturation of the emulsion increases by 81.5%). -Potential application as a color control strategy for complex food systems.	[127]
	Chitosan nanoparticles obtained by cross-linking with sodium tripolyphosphate	Chlorogenic acid and cinnamon essential oil	-Stable emulsions after 5 days of storage. -Suitable co-encapsulation of cinnamon essential oil and chlorogenic acid.	[128]
	Carboxymethyl chitosan-sodium alginate nanoparticles to obtain hydrogel emulsions	Curcumin	-Controlled release of curcumin in vitro. -Antibacterial properties against E. coli and S. aureus. -Improved wound healing.	[129]
	Pea protein isolate-chitosan nanoparticles	Eicosapentaenoic acid	Sustained release in vitro digestion and enhanced bioaccessibility of eicosapentaenoic acid.	[130]
	Potato protein-chitosan complex	β-carotene	Sustained release rate of β-carotene in vitro.	[131]
	Ovotransferrin-carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles to prepare oleogels	Curcumin	Enhanced bioaccessibility of curcumin, stable during storage and with high retention of the encapsulate.	[132]
	Ultrasonicated chitosan	β-carotene	Stable emulsions during heating (121°C), processing and storage at 37°C (constant color parameters).	[133]
	Chitosan nanoparticles produced by self-aggregation or by crosslinking with tripolyphosphate, further freeze-dried, or spray-dried	Roasted coffee	Increased oil retention in the microcapsules spray-drying promotes better retention of polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity during in vitro digestion.	[134]
Cellulose	Cellulose nanofibrils, holocellulose nanofibrils, and lignocellulose nanofibrils were obtained using deep eutectic solvents	Curcumin	-Encapsulation efficiency of curcumin: 94.80%. -Inhibitory effect against S. aureus.	[135]
	Cellulose nanocrystals and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose	Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA)	-Enhanced bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids in dogs. -Stomach oxidation of n-3 PUFA prevented.	[136]
	Nanocellulose synthesized from coconut milk waste residue using 38–42% sulfuric acid and/or ultrasound (5–10 min) separately and in combination	Curcumin	-Stable emulsions at pH 2 and 63°C. -Stomach release: 38%; intestinal release: 52%, which supports emulsions as curcumin delivery systems.	[137]
	Cellulose nanocrystals	D-limonene	-Pickering emulsions incorporated into citrus pectin-based films aiming to coat fruits. -Improved mechanical properties of the films (tensile strength, elongation), water barrier, and film clarity. -Inhibition of harmful microbes causing rotting of fresh fruits.	[138]
	Nanocrystalline cellulose	Butterfly pea petal extract rich in anthocyanins	Set the encapsulation conditions to retain the greatest amounts of extracts.	[139]
	β-cyclodextrin, cellulose nanocrystals, and bacterial cellulose	Citrus essential oil	Controlled delivery system for flavors.	[140]
	Alginate beads and cellulose nanocrystal-stabilized Pickering emulsion	Curcumin	-Improved storage stability of curcumin (half-life 160 days). -Feasible incorporation of emulsions into milk, apple juice, yogurt, and mineral water, that can be stored u to 26 days. -Full release of curcumin in the intestinal phase of in vitro digestion.	[141]
	Cellulose nanofibrils and cellulose nanocrystals synthesized from pomelo peels	Lycopene	High ail fractions are beneficial for controlling lycopene release during gastrointestinal digestion.	[142]
	Cellulose nanocrystals-whey protein isolate complex	Curcumin	-Encapsulation efficiency: 89.4%. -Stable a stomach pH. -Release of curcumin in the intestinal phase.	[143]
	Bacterial cellulose from fermented kombucha	Curcumin	Enhanced stability (temperatures, low pH, sunlight, UV-365 nm) and antioxidant capacity of curcumin.	[144]
	Nanofibrillated cellulose	Astaxanthin	-Increased stability of astaxanthin with the increase in the concentration of nanofibrillated cellulose. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of astaxanthin.	[145]
	Hydrophobic-hydrophilic cellulose particles	Vitamin B9	Responsiveness of emulsions at pH 2, 4, and 7, vitamin B9 release depending on pH.	[146]
	Cellulose nanocrystals	Clove bud oil	Pickering emulsions incorporated into pearl millet starch films with antimicrobial activity.	[147]
	Tempo-oxidized cellulose nanocrystals	Ginger essential oil	-Pickering emulsions incorporated into starch-based films with improved antibacterial activity and tensile strength properties, decreased water vapor permeability. -Improved storage of tomatoes when coated with the films.	[148]
	Fungal (Pleurotus eryngii) cellulose nanocrystals	Triterpenes	Enhanced stability of triterpenes.	[149]
	Cellulose nanocrystals	Astaxanthin	-Structural stability of astaxanthin. -Inhibitory effect against E. coli and S. aureus.	[150]
	Pineapple peel cellulose nanocrystals and (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate	Curcumin	-Improved bioaccessibility of curcumin. -Thermal and UV-light stability of emulsions, with a curcumin retention of 92%.	[151]
	Cellulose nanocrystalline	Curcumin	-Stable emulsions up to 1 month. -Encapsulation efficiency: 99%. -Half-life of encapsulated curcumin: 98 days.	[152]
	Undaria pinnatifida nanocellulose	Astaxanthin	-Stable emulsions at 50°C and 14 days. -Enhanced bioaccessibility of astaxanthin and release of free fatty acids.	[153]

ROS: reactive oxygen species

Declarations

Author contributions

AGZ: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. LC: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. Both authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

Both authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This work was supported by the Argentinean Agency for Scientific and Technological Promotion (ANPCyT) [PICT/2020/0482, PICT (2020)/1602]. Lucía Cassani acknowledges Consellería de Educación, Ciencia, Universidades e Formación Profesional (Xunta de Galicia) for the financial support [ED481D-2024-002]. Andrea Gomez-Zavaglia is member of the research career of CONICET. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

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