Table Info

Table 1.

Analytical performance of methodologies developed for the determination of sterigmatocystin (STE) in food from 2021 to 2024

Sample	Extraction		Determination		LOD/LOQ (μg/kg or µg/L)	Recovery (%)	Concentration levels (μg/kg) (number of samples, detection rate)	Ref
Brown rice, wheat	25 g sample, 100 mL ACN:water (17:3, v/v) SPE (Horiba Aflaking IAC) Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS InertSustain C18 (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 3 µm) 2 mM NH₄Ac in water/2 mM NH₄Ac in ACN		0.02–0.03/0.05–0.09	86–102	Brown rice 0.35–5.70 Polished rice 0.02–0.30 Wheat 0.05–2.20 Bread 0.02–0.20 Baked sweets 0.01–0.20 Noodles 0.01–0.80	[23]
Rice, maize, soybean	5 g sample, 25 mL MeOH:water (7:3, v/v) 30 min shaking SPE (HMON@MIP) TFA + hexane derivatization Dried and reconstituted		LC-FD Symmetry C18 (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) ACN:water (32:68, v/v)		-	81–95	-	[24]
Chilli, pepper	50 g sample, 10% KCl in ACN LLE (2x hexane) LLE (hexane:CHCl₃, 1:1 v/v) Dried and reconstituted		GO-FAM-FRET		24/132	71–89	-	[25]
Soaked rice, steamed rice, fermented rice, fermented wine	QuEChERS		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC HSS T3 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) 0.1% FA + 2 mM AF in water/0.1% FA + 2 mM AF in ACN		0.01–0.07/0.03–0.25	73–119	-	[26]
Wheat	10 g sample, 25 mL ACN:water (9:1, v/v), 1 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl 30 min shacking 20 min centrifugation MSPE (Fe₃O₄-MIP) elution 5 mL MeOH:TEA (9:1, v/v) 20 min shaking Dried and reconstituted		LC-DAD		0.63/-	88–97	3.4–4.5	[27]
Cereals, nuts, vegetables, oil, noodle, paste, seasoned food, instant food	5 g sample, 20 mL 0.1% FA in ACN:water (1:1, v/v) 30 min shaking 10 min centrifugation SPE (Isolute Myco) elution 2 mL 0.1% FA in ACN + 4 mL MeOH Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Imtakt Cadenza C18 (100 mm × 2 mm, 3 μm) 0.1% FA + 5 mM AF in water/0.1% FA + 5 mM AF in MeOH		0.4–0.9/1.2–2.8	69–112	Processed foods 0.08–1.93 (n = 522, 4.2%) Agricultural products 0.08–10.07 (n = 613, 3.9%)	[28]
Black, green, and Oolong teas	QuEChERS 5.0 g sample, ACN:water (75:25, v/v) 30 min UAE, 1 g NaCl, 1 g MgSO₄ 5 min centrifugation dSPE (C18) 5 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Shim-pack XR-ODS III (75 mm × 2.0 mm, 1.6 µm) 0.1% FA + 5 mM AF in water/0.1% FA + 5 mM AF in ACN		0.04–0.12/0.13–0.40	101–118	0.13–0.48 (n = 126, 13.5%)	[29]
Wheat	5 g sample, 20 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min UAE 5 min centrifugation MSPE (MHNTs@MIP) elution 5.3 mL EtOH:HAc (9:1, v/v) Dried and reconstituted		LC-DAD Hedera ODS-2 (250 mm × 4.6 mm) MeOH:water (60:40 v/v)		1.1/3.5	89–103	-	[30]
Roasted coffee bean, black pepper	10 g sample, 40 mL MeOH:water (8:2, v/v) 5 min shaking 2 min centrifugation SPE (Envi-carb SPE) elution 6 mL toluene Hexane cleaning SPE (IAC) elution 2 mL ACN		LC-MS/MS Acquity CSH C18 (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) 0.05 M FA and AF in MeOH:water (8:2, v/v)/water		0.03/0.10	92–105	0.08–0.87 (n = 18, 22%)	[31]
Rice, wheat	5 g sample, 10 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min UAE 5 min centrifugation Dried and redissolved in 10 mL water 15 min dSPE [SiO₂@mPMO-IL(im)₂] elution 2 mL MeOH 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS ODS (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) ACN:MeOH:water (22:22:55, v/v/v)/ACN:MeOH:water (35:35:30, v/v/v)		0.9–1.5/3.0–4.5	92–102	-	[32]
Coix seed	5 g sample, 20 mL 0.1% FA in ACN:water (7:3, v/v) 30 min mechanically shaking 5 min centrifugation		SIDA-UHPLC-MS/MS		0.03/0.10	83–88	LOQ–23 (n = 60, 83%)	[33]
Mango, litchi, longan, and their products	2 g sample, 10 mL 1% HAc in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min UAE 5 min centrifugation dSPE (PSA, C18) 10 min vortex shaking 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted tube		LC-MS/MS Acquity BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) Water/0.2% FA in ACN		0.01/0.04	84–116	-	[34]
Honey	1.5 g sample, 3 mL water, 2.5 mL ACN, 1 g MgSO₄, 0.25 g NaCl, 0.25 g Na₃Cit, 0.125 g Na₂HCit 1 min hand shaking 10 min centrifugation 2 min dSPE (MgSO₄) 10 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Eclipse Plus C18 RRHT (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 µm) 0.2 M NH₄HCO₃ in water/0.2 M NH₄HCO₃ in ACN		0.3/1.0	101–103	0.4–18.7 (n = 57, 3.5%)	[35]
Pale lager beer	25 mL sample, pH adjustment to 7.4 SPE (11⁺Myco MS-PREP IAC) elution 2 mL MeOH Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 µm) 1 mM NH₄Ac + 0.5% HAc + 0.1% FA in water/0.5% HAc + 0.1% FA in MeOH		-	27	-	[36]
Rice	5 g sample, 10 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min UAE 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted in 10 mL water 25 min MSPE (Fe₃O₄/ZIFs) elution 2 mL 10% FA in ACN Dried and reconstituted		LC-DAD ODS column (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) Water/0.05% H₃PO₄ in ACN		0.4/1.2	79–95	1.2–2.2 (n = 56, 3.6%)	[37]
Cocoa beans	7.5 g sample, 18 mL 5% HAc in ACN:water (7:3, v/v), 3 g NaCl 60 min shaking 15 min freezing, –70°C 10 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) 0.1% FA + 5 mM AF + 2% MeOH in water/0.1% FA in ACN		3/10	97–109	10–11 (n = 135, 1.5%)	[38]
Spice, herb	-		LC-MS/MS		-	-	0.4–7.8 (n = 155, 4%)	[39]
Rice, wheat	5 g sample, 10 mL 10% FA in water, 10 mL ACN, 4 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl, 1 g Na₃Cit, 0.5 g Na₂HCit 5 min shaking 5 min centrifugation SPE (Oasis Prime HLB)		LC-MS/MS Acquity HSS T3 C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) 1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in water/1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in MeOH		2/-	-	-	[40]
Arecae semen	2 g sample, 15 mL 0.2% FA in ACN:water (84:16, v/v) 10 min UAE 10 min centrifugation S-µSPE (MycoSpin 400) Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 µm) 0.1% FA in MeOH/2 mM AF in water		0.3/1.0	94–105	LOQ–2.2 (n = 20, 15%)	[41]
Plant-based milk alternatives	No sample treatment		ELISA		2/- (ELISA)	-	Soy (n = 7, 14%) Almond (n = 7, 0%) Oat (n = 14, 14%) Others (n = 26, 8%)	[42]
Plant-based milk alternatives	10 mL sample	LLE (EtAc) Dried and reconstituted in PBS SPE (VICAM AflaTest WB SR+ IAC) elution 3 mL MeOH	LC-MS/MS	Phenomenex C18 (100 mm × 3.0 mm, 5.0 µm) 0.1% FA + 300 mg/L AF in water/0.1% FA + 300 mg/L AF in MeOH	2/- (ELISA)	-		[42]
Edible oil, soy sauce, bean sauce	2 g sample, 20 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 10 min orbital shaking 5 min centrifugation LLE (Hexane) 3 min centrifugation SPE (Oasis PRiME HLB) Dried and reconstituted		LC-HRMS Accucore aQ C18 (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 2.6 μm) 0.1% FA in water/0.1% FA in MeOH		0.3/1.0	71–104	Sesame oil LOQ–2.9 (n = 12, 8%)	[43]
Corn, millet, rice, soybean, oats	5 g sample, 25 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 30 min shaking Centrifugation SPE (COF@MIP) elution 5 mL ACN Dried and reconstituted		LC-DAD Waters Symmetry-C18 (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) MeOH:water (80:20, v/v)		2/8	79–98	-	[44]
Rice bran, maize	1 g sample, 4 mL 1% FA in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 90 min vortex shaking 15 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Gemini C18 (100 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) 5 mM NH₄Ac + 1% HAC in water/5 mM NH₄Ac + 1% HAC in MeOH		0.5/2.5	92–105	Rice bran 2.8–272.3 (n = 125, 98%) Maize 0.3–17.9 (n = 125, 43%)	[45]
Dry-cured meat products	QuEChERS SPE defatting (Captiva EMR-Lipid) SPE (Easi-extract sterigmatocystin IAC)		LC-MS/MS Gemini (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm)		0.02/0.06	114	0.10–3.93 (n = 250, 4%)	[46]
Licorice	2 g sample, 20 mL ACN:water (84:16, v/v) 30 min UAE QuEChERS (4 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl, 1 g Na₃Cit, 0.5 g Na₂HCit) 30 min MSPE [Fe₃O₄@PDA/MIL-101(Cr)] Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Acquity UPLC BEH C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) 5 mM NH₄Ac + 0.1% NH₃ in water/5 mM NH₄Ac + 0.1% NH₃ in MeOH		0.09/0.30	107–116	-	[47]
Long-ripened Grana cheese	10 g sample, 50 mL ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 60 min rotary shaking Filtration, 2 mL PBS SPE (R-Biopharm-Rhône IAC) elution 6 mL ACN Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Betasil RP-18 (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 5 µm) 0.2% FA in water/0.2% FA in ACN		0.05/0.15	87–92	LOQ–6.9 (n = 107, 94%)	[48]
Pseudostellariae Radix	ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 1 h shaking dSPE (PSA + C18 + MgSO₄)		LC-MS/MS Acquity HSS T3 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) 0.1% FA in water/0.1% FA in ACN		-	-	1.5–69.6 (n = 26, 38%)	[49]
Peanut butter, hazelnut butter, chocolate	5 g sample, 20 mL JSM FO 9704 15 min shaking 5 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS		0.01–0.02/0.05–0.15	94–100	0.2–2.2	[50]
Cocoa	7.5 g sample, 18 mL 0.5% HAc in ACN:water (7:3, v/v), 3 g NaCl 60 min shaking 15 min frozen at –70°C 10 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Titan C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.9 μm)		-	-	2.4–3.3 (n = 18, 11%)	[51]
Carob	1 g sample, 10 mL water, 10 mL 1% HAc in ACN 10 min UAE 10 min shaking, 1 g NaCl, 4 g MgSO₄ Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Titan C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.9 μm)		-	-	0.15–0.18 (n = 22, 14%)	[51]
Cheese	2.5 g sample, 5 mL 0.1% FA in ACN, 5 mL saturated MgSO₄ 30 min shaking 7 min centrifugation Defatting, 4 mL heptane 5 min shaking Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Gemini C18 (100 mm × 3.0 mm, 5.0 μm) 0.1% FA + 300 mg/L AF in water/0.1% FA + 300 mg/L AF in MeOH		0.01/0.04	100–106	0.08–4.99 (n = 11, 82%)	[52]
Goat, camel, and cow milk	1 mL sample, 1 mL 1% FA in ACN, 0.4 g MgSO₄, 0.1 g NaCl 10 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS Acquity HSS T3 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) 0.1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in water/0.1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in MeOH		-	-	LOQ–7.7 (n = 135, 14%)	[53]
Cereal-based baby food	2 g sample, 10 mL JSM FO 9704 15 min shaking 5 min centrifugation		LC-MS/MS		0.02/0.07	100	0.02–0.50 (n = 85, 34%)	[54]
Rice, peanut, maize, sorghum	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% HAc in ACN:water (8:2, v/v)		LC-MS/MS		-	-	Peanut 0.1–30 (n = 53, 40%) Maize 0.1–12 (n = 142, 26%) Rice 0.1–2.2 (n = 23, 48%) Sorghum 0.1–2.5 (n = 24, 12%)	[55]
Hazelnut kernels	25 g sample, 100 mL MeOH:water (8:2, v/v), 5 g NaCl 3 min extraction PBS dilution SPE (Easi-Extract Sterigmatocystin IAC) elution 1.5 mL ACN Dried and reconstituted		LC-FLD ODS2 C18-300 (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 3 μm) 120 mg/L KBr + 350 µL/L HNO₃ in ACN:MeOH:water (10:15:75, v/v)		1.3/4.2	81–87	9–101 (n = 30, 5%)	[56]
Herbs, herbal infusions	1 g herb sample, 5 mL water, 30 min shaking	5 mL 1% FA in ACN, 2 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl 1 h orbital shaking 15 min centrifugation dSPE (C18, Z-sep+) Dried and reconstituted	LC-MS/MS Kinetex C18 (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 2.6 μm) 5 mM NH₄Ac in water:MeOH:HAc (94:5:1, v/v)/water:MeOH:HAc (2:97:1, v/v)		0.5–20/2.5–40	73–101	34–147 (n = 58, 19%)	[57]
Herbs, herbal infusions	1 g infusion sample, 50 mL hot water, 15 min shacking	5 min centrifugation 5 mL ACN, 2 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted			0.5–20/2.5–40	73–101	34–147 (n = 58, 19%)	[57]
Malt, beer	5 g malt sample, 2 g MgSO₄, 1 g NaCl, 15 mL ACN:water (75:25, v/v)	6 min centrifugation d-SPE (MgSO₄, C18) Dried and reconstituted	LC-HRMS/MS Kinetex Core-Shell F5 100 A (2.6 µm) 0.1% HAc + 4 mM NH₄Ac in water/0.1% HAc + 4 mM NH₄Ac in ACN		5/12	90–97	LOQ (n = 47, 0%)	[58]
Malt, beer	5 mL beer sample, 5 mL ACN, 2 g MgSO_4, 1 g NaCl	3 min UAE 5 min centrifugation dSPE (MgSO₄, C18) Dried and reconstituted			5/12	90–97	LOQ (n = 47, 0%)	[58]
Rice bran	20 g sample, 80 mL MeOH:water (8:2, v/v) 15 min UAE 5 min centrifugation DLLME (CHCl₃/water) 5 min centrifugation Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Accucore C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 2.6 μm)		2.5/5.0	99	LOQ (n = 24, 0%)	[59]
Milled rice	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% FA in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 90 min shaking		LC-MS/MS Synergi Hydro-RP (100 mm × 3 mm, 2.5 µm) 1% FA and 10 mM NH₄Ac in water/MeOH		0.03/0.09	80	LOQ–7 (n = 200, 74%)	[60]
Dairy products	2 g sample, 8 mL 2% FA in ACN 30 min UAE 5 min centrifugation SPE (Captiva EMR-lipid) Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Shiseido C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 3 μm) 0.1% FA in water/0.1% FA in MeOH		0.005/0.020	73	LOQ (n = 76, 0%)	[61]
Milling oats	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% HAc in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) 90 min shaking S-µSPE (MycoSpin 400) Dried and reconstituted		LC-MS/MS Eclipse Plus C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 µm) 0.1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in water/0.1% HAc + 5 mM NH₄Ac in MeOH		-/1	95	1–7 (n = 281, 2.3%)	[62]
Garlic	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% HAc in ACN:water (8:2, v/v) Vortex shaking		LC-MS/MS Gemini C18 (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm)		0.05/0.14	90	3–32 (n = 36, 100%)	[63]
Coix seed	5 g sample, 20 mL 1% FA in ACN:water (7:3, v/v) 20 min vortex shaking 5 min centrifugation		LC-HRMS CORTECS C18 (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.6 μm) 0.1% FA + 1 mM NH₄Ac in water/0.1% FA + 1 mM NH₄Ac in MeOH		-/1	76–89	1–51 (n = 77, 30%)	[64]

-: not indicated. SPE: solid-phase extraction; LOD: limit of detection; LOQ: limit of quantification; LC: liquid chromatography; MS: mass spectrometry; HMON@MIP: hollow-structured microporous organic networks coated with molecularly imprinted polymers; FD: fluorescence; GO-FAM-FRET: graphene oxide-aptamer-FD resonance energy transfer; QuEChERS: quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe; MSPE: magnetic SPE; DAD: diode array; UAE: ultrasound-assisted extraction; dSPE: dispersive SPE; SiO₂@mPMO-IL(im)₂: ionic liquid-functionalized mesoporous multipod silica; UHPLC: ultra-high-performance LC; PSA: primary secondary amine; ZIFs: zeolitic imidazolate frameworks; COF@MIP: MIPs-coated covalent organic framework nanoflowers; DLLME: dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction; HRMS: high-resolution MS; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; ACN: acetonitrile; IAC: immunoaffinity column; TFA: trifluoroacetic acid; LLE: liquid-liquid extraction; FA: formic acid; AF: ammonium formiate; TEA: triethylamine; SIDA: stable isotope dilution assay; S-µSPE: spin micro SPE; PBS: phosphate buffer saline; FLD: fluorescence detector; MHNTs@MIP: magnetic halloysite nanotubes coated molecular imprinted polymer

Declarations

Author contributions

OP: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. FAET: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.

Conflicts of interest

Olga Pardo and Francesc A. Esteve-Turrillas, who are the Guest Editors of Exploration of Foods and Foodomics had no involvement in the decision-making or the review process of this manuscript.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This study was funded by the Conselleria d’Educació, Universitats i Ocupació from Generalitat Valenciana project [CIAICO2022/217]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

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