Table Info

Table 1.

Summary of pollutants coming from human activities

Family	Examples	Other information
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)	Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)	Widely used due to their insulating properties as dielectrics in transformers and capacitors and lubricants in turbines and pumps
	Polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs)	Mainly used as flame retardants in plastics and textiles
	Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs)	Carcinogenic dioxins
	Dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs)	Carcinogenic dioxins
	Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs)	Toxicity, bioaccumulation (BA), mutagenicity, and teratogenicity
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)	Hormones	Naturally produced hormones such as testosterone, estrone, and 17b-estradiol
	Bisphenols	Bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues, are mainly used as precursors of epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics for food packaging coating, thermal papers, household appliances, and adhesives
	Phthalates	Phthalate esters (PAEs), are widely used as plasticizers in different types of products such as food packaging, personal care products, polyvinylchloride resins, construction materials, pesticide carriers and cosmetics, electronic equipment, and insect repellents, etc.
	Alkylphenols	Obtained after the degradation of alkylphenol ethoxylates, which are used in the production of plasticizers and emulsifiers, or as nonionic surfactants
	Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)	Utilized in a variety of applications including water-repellent coatings, stain-resistant fabrics, and firefighting foams
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs)	Flame retardant compounds	Tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP)
	Anti-inflammatory drugs	Diclofenac or ibuprofen
	Antibiotics	Macrolides, sulfonamides and quinolones

Declarations

Author contributions

COE: Investigation, Writing—original draft. ARC: Investigation, Writing—original draft. EJCC and MJLG: Writing—original draft, Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

The authors acknowledge financial support from the Spanish State Research Agency [AEI//10.13039/501100011033/], the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (MICIU), and the European Union (NextGenerationEU/PRTR) through the project [PID2021-125459OB-I00]. Also, MJ Lerma-García acknowledges the project [CIAICO/2022/183] funded by Generalitat Valenciana. E.J. Carrasco-Correa also acknowledges projects [PID2020-117686RB-C33] and [TED2021-131303B-I00] from AEI and MICIU and [CIGE/2023/069] from Generalitat Valenciana. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

References

Venugopal V, Gopakumar K. Shellfish: Nutritive Value, Health Benefits, and Consumer Safety. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2017;16:1219–42. [DOI] [PubMed]

Busta FF, Bernard DT, Gravani RB, Hall P, Pierson MD, Prince G, et al. Evaluation and definition of potentially hazardous foods. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2003;2:8–14.

Beyer J, Green NW, Brooks S, Allan IJ, Ruus A, Gomes T, et al. Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis spp.) as sentinel organisms in coastal pollution monitoring: A review. Mar Environ Res. 2017;130:338–65. [DOI] [PubMed]

Joshy A, Sharma SRK, Mini KG, Gangadharan S, Pranav P. Histopathological evaluation of bivalves from the southwest coast of India as an indicator of environmental quality. Aquat Toxicol. 2022;243:106076. [DOI] [PubMed]

Chahouri A, Yacoubi B, Moukrim A, Banaoui A. Bivalve molluscs as bioindicators of multiple stressors in the marine environment: recent advances. Cont Shelf Res. 2023;264:105056. [DOI]

Chiba S, Batten S, Martin CS, Ivory S, Miloslavich P, Weatherdon LV. Zooplankton monitoring to contribute towards addressing global biodiversity conservation challenges. J Plankton Res. 2018;40:509–18. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Gerssen A, Pol-Hofstad IE, Poelman M, Mulder PPJ, Top HJvd, Boer Jd. Marine toxins: chemistry, toxicity, occurrence and detection, with special reference to the Dutch situation. Toxins (Basel). 2010;2:878–904. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Nunes BZ, Ribeiro VV, Garcia Y, Lourenço RA, Castro ÍB. Chemical contamination affecting filter-feeding bivalves in no-take marine protected areas from Brazil. J Environ Manage. 2024;360:121102. [DOI] [PubMed]

Mikołajczyk S, Warenik-Bany M, Pajurek M. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls in bivalve molluscs. Risk to Polish consumers? J Vet Res. 2023;67:267–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

10.

Ukwo SP, Obot OI, Esenowo IK. Polychlorinated biphenyls residues in bivalve shellfish from Niger Delta: distribution pattern, tissue burden and food safety assessment. Food Addit Contam. 2023;16:311–20. [DOI] [PubMed]

11.

Lerebours A, Bathie M, Receveur J, Jézéquel R, Dubillot E, Brunello P, et al. Pesticides, nonylphenols and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in marine bivalves from France: A pilot study. Mar Pollut Bull. 2021;172:112956. [DOI] [PubMed]

12.

Luna-Acosta A, Budzinski H, Menach KL, Thomas-Guyon H, Bustamante P. Persistent organic pollutants in a marine bivalve on the Marennes-Oléron Bay and the Gironde Estuary (French Atlantic Coast)—Part 1: Bioaccumulation. Sci Total Environ. 2015;514:500–10. [DOI] [PubMed]

13.

Liu B, Lv L, Ding L, Gao L, Li J, Ma X, et al. Comparison of phthalate esters (PAEs) in freshwater and marine food webs: Occurrence, bioaccumulation, and trophodynamics. J Hazard Mater. 2024;466:133534. [DOI] [PubMed]

14.

Baralla E, Pasciu V, Varoni MV, Nieddu M, Demuro R, Demontis MP. Bisphenols’ occurrence in bivalves as sentinel of environmental contamination. Sci Total Environ. 2021;785:147263. [DOI] [PubMed]

15.

He M, Lu J, Wang J, Wei S, Hageman KJ. Phthalate esters in biota, air and water in an agricultural area of western China, with emphasis on bioaccumulation and human exposure. Sci Total Environ. 2020;698:134264. [DOI] [PubMed]

16.

Lv Y, Yao L, Wang L, Liu W, Zhao J, He L, et al. Bioaccumulation, metabolism, and risk assessment of phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals in specific tissues of wild fish. Chemosphere. 2019;226:607–15. [DOI] [PubMed]

17.

Wang Q, Chen M, Shan G, Chen P, Cui S, Yi S, et al. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of emerging bisphenol analogues in aquatic organisms from Taihu Lake, China. Sci Total Environ. 2017;598:814–20. [DOI] [PubMed]

18.

Ruhí A, Acuña V, Barceló D, Huerta B, Mor J, Rodríguez-Mozaz S, et al. Bioaccumulation and trophic magnification of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disruptors in a Mediterranean river food web. Sci Total Environ. 2016;540:250–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

19.

Parolini M, Pedriali A, Binelli A. Application of a biomarker response index for ranking the toxicity of five pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) to the bivalve Dreissena polymorpha. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 2013;64:439–47. [DOI] [PubMed]

20.

Xu X, Xu Y, Xu N, Pan B, Shu F, Ni J. Bioaccumulation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in freshwater pearl mussels Hyriopsis cumingii in Poyang Lake. Mar Pollut Bull. 2023;193:115221. [DOI] [PubMed]

21.

Baralla E, Demontis MP, Dessì F, Varoni MV. An Overview of Antibiotics as Emerging Contaminants: Occurrence in Bivalves as Biomonitoring Organisms. Animals (Basel). 2021;11:3239. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

22.

Wang H, Huang W, Gong Y, Chen C, Zhang T, Diao X. Occurrence and potential health risks assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in different tissues of bivalves from Hainan Island, China. Food Chem Toxicol. 2020;136:111108. [DOI] [PubMed]

23.

Braga AC, Rodrigues SM, Lourenço HM, Costa PR, Pedro S. Bivalve Shellfish Safety in Portugal: Variability of Faecal Levels, Metal Contaminants and Marine Biotoxins during the Last Decade (2011–2020). Toxins (Basel). 2023;15:91. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

24.

Lerebours A, Diallo T, Lecureuil A, Receveur J, Huet V, Parinet J, et al. Seasonal variations of low pesticides contamination and biomarker responses in marine bivalves from French estuaries. Mar Pollut Bull. 2023;192:114988. [DOI] [PubMed]

25.

Diallo T, Leleu J, Parinet J, Guérin T, Thomas H, Lerebours A. Approaches to determine pesticides in marine bivalves. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2023;415:3093–110. [DOI] [PubMed]

26.

Jackson M, Eadsforth C, Schowanek D, Delfosse T, Riddle A, Budgen N. Comprehensive review of several surfactants in marine environments: Fate and ecotoxicity. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2016;35:1077–86. [DOI] [PubMed]

27.

Rios-Fuster B, Alomar C, Deudero S. Elucidating the consequences of the co-exposure of microplastics jointly to other pollutants in bivalves: A review. Environ Res. 2023;216:114560. [DOI] [PubMed]

28.

Kumar V, Kothiyal NC, Saruchi Vikas P, Sharma R. Sources, distribution, and health effect of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) – current knowledge and future directions. J Chinese Adv Mat Soc. 2016;4:302–21. [DOI]

29.

Zahm S, Bonde JP, Chiu WA, Hoppin J, Kanno J, Abdallah M, et al. Carcinogenicity of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid. Lancet Oncol. 2024;25:16–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

30.

Rickard BP, Rizvi I, Fenton SE. Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and female reproductive outcomes: PFAS elimination, endocrine-mediated effects, and disease. Toxicology. 2022;465:153031. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

31.

Rafa N, Ahmed B, Zohora F, Bakya J, Ahmed S, Ahmed SF, et al. Microplastics as carriers of toxic pollutants: Source, transport, and toxicological effects. Environ Pollut. 2024;343:123190. [DOI] [PubMed]

32.

Ribeiro VV, Soares TMA, Enrique De-la-torre G, Casado-Coy N, Sanz-Lazaro C, Castro ÍB. Microplastics in rocky shore mollusks of different feeding habits: An assessment of sentinel performance. Environ Pollut. 2024;346:123571. [DOI] [PubMed]

33.

Jassim AK. Effect of microplastic on the human health. In: Salama E-S, Summers JK, editors. Advances and Challenges in Microplastics. IntechOpen; 2023. p. 592. [DOI]

34.

Mamun AA, Prasetya TAE, Dewi IR, Ahmad M. Microplastics in human food chains: Food becoming a threat to health safety. Sci Total Environ. 2023;858:159834. [DOI] [PubMed]

35.

Beaz‐Hidalgo R, Balboa S, Romalde JL, Figueras MJ. Diversity and pathogenecity of Vibrio species in cultured bivalve molluscs. Environ Microbiol Rep. 2010;2:34–43. [DOI] [PubMed]

36.

Alava JJ, Cheung WWL, Ross PS, Sumaila UR. Climate change–contaminant interactions in marine food webs: Toward a conceptual framework. Glob Chang Biol. 2017;23:3984–4001. [DOI] [PubMed]

37.

Dolah FMV, Ramsdell JS. Review and assessment of in vitro detection methods for algal toxins. J AOAC Int. 2001;84:1617–25. [PubMed]

38.

Mafra Jr LL, de Souza DA, Menezes M, Schramm MA, Hoff R. Marine biotoxins: Latest advances and challenges toward seafood safety, using Brazil as a case study. Curr Opin Food Sci. 2023;53:101078. [DOI]

39.

Álvarez-Muñoz D, Rambla-Alegre M, Carrasco N, Alda MLd, Barceló D. Fast analysis of relevant contaminants mixture in commercial shellfish. Talanta. 2019;205:119884. [DOI] [PubMed]

40.

Bai X, Acharya K. Uptake of endocrine-disrupting chemicals by quagga mussels (Dreissena bugensis) in an urban-impacted aquatic ecosystem. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2019;26:250–58. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

41.

Rosati L, Agnese M, Verderame M, Aniello F, Venditti M, Mita DG, et al. Morphological and molecular responses in ovaries of Mytilus galloprovincialis collected in two different sites of the Naples Bay. J Exp Zool A Ecol Integr Physiol. 2019;331:52–60. [DOI] [PubMed]

42.

Cerkvenik-Flajs V, Fonda I, Gombač M. Analysis and Occurrence of Bisphenol A in Mediterranean Mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) Sampled from the Slovenian Coastal Waters of the North Adriatic Sea. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 2018;101:439–45. [DOI] [PubMed]

43.

Rios-Fuster B, Alomar C, González GP, Martínez RMG, Rojas DLS, Hernando PF, et al. Assessing microplastic ingestion and occurrence of bisphenols and phthalates in bivalves, fish and holothurians from a Mediterranean marine protected area. Environ Res. 2022;214:114034. [DOI] [PubMed]

44.

Jahromi FA, Moore F, Keshavarzi B, Mohebbi-Nozar SL, Mohammadi Z, Sorooshian A, et al. Bisphenol A (BPA) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the surface sediment and bivalves from Hormozgan Province coastline in the Northern Persian Gulf: A focus on source apportionment. Mar Pollut Bull. 2020;152:110941. [DOI] [PubMed]

45.

Liao C, Kannan K. Species-specific accumulation and temporal trends of bisphenols and benzophenones in mollusks from the Chinese Bohai Sea during 2006–2015. Sci Total Environ. 2019;653:168–75. [DOI] [PubMed]

46.

Graca B, Rychter A, Staniszewska M, Smolarz K, Sokołowski A, Bodziach K. Bioaccumulation of phenolic endocrine disruptors in the clam Rangia cuneata: Storage in shells and influence of size and sex. Environ Res. 2021;197:111181. [DOI] [PubMed]

47.

Souza PFd, Cunha DLd, Daflon SDA, Machado AR, Gaudie-Ley LW, Jr JdM, et al. Bioaccumulation of PAHs in marine bivalves of the Santos Estuary (Brazil) associated with the evaluation of human consumption. Mar Pollut Bull. 2024;199:115900. [DOI] [PubMed]

48.

Miranda DA, Benskin JP, Awad R, Lepoint G, Leonel J, Hatje V. Bioaccumulation of Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in a tropical estuarine food web. Sci Total Environ. 2021;754:142146. [DOI] [PubMed]

49.

Lee J, Lee H, Lim J, Moon H. Legacy and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the coastal environment of Korea: Occurrence, spatial distribution, and bioaccumulation potential. Chemosphere. 2020;251:126633. [DOI] [PubMed]

50.

Goya AB, Tarnovius S, Hatfield RG, Coates L, Lewis AM, Turner AD. Paralytic shellfish toxins and associated toxin profiles in bivalve mollusc shellfish from Argentina. Harmful Algae. 2020;99:101910. [DOI] [PubMed]

51.

Yin M, Wang W, Wei J, Chen X, Chen Q, Chen X, et al. Novel dual-emissive fluorescent immunoassay for synchronous monitoring of okadaic acid and saxitoxin in shellfish. Food Chem. 2022;368:130856. [DOI] [PubMed]

52.

Freitas R, Marques F, Marchi LD, Vale C, Botelho MJ. Biochemical performance of mussels, cockles and razor shells contaminated by paralytic shellfish toxins. Environ Res. 2020;188:109846. [DOI] [PubMed]

53.

Jin X, Chen J, Zeng X, Xu L, Wu Y, Fu F. A signal-on magnetic electrochemical immunosensor for ultra-sensitive detection of saxitoxin using palladium-doped graphitic carbon nitride-based non-competitive strategy. Biosens Bioelectron. 2019;128:45–51. [DOI] [PubMed]

54.

Martins JC, Dominguez-Perez D, Azevedo C, Braga AC, Costa PR, Osorio H, Campos A. Molecular responses of mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis associated to accumulation and depuration of marine biotoxins okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1 revealed by shotgun proteomics. Front Mar Sci. 2020;7:589822. [DOI]

55.

García-Corona JL, Hegaret H, Lassudrie M, Derrien A, Terre-Terrillon A, Delaire T, et al. Comparative study of domoic acid accumulation, isomer content and associated digestive subcellular processes in five marine invertebrate species. Aquat Toxicol. 2024;266:106793. [DOI] [PubMed]

56.

Rossignoli AE, Ben-Gigirey B, Cid M, Mariño C, Martín H, Garrido S, et al. Lipophilic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Marine Invertebrates from the Galician Coast. Toxins (Basel). 2023;15:631. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

57.

da Costa Filho BM, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos TA. Environmental monitoring approaches for the detection of organic contaminants in marine environments: A critical review. Trends Environ Anal Chem. 2022;33:e00154. [DOI]

58.

Chakraborty P, Krishnani KK. Emerging bioanalytical sensors for rapid and close-to-real-time detection of priority abiotic and biotic stressors in aquaculture and culture-based fisheries. Sci Total Environ. 2022;838:156128. [DOI] [PubMed]

59.

Rani V, Verma ML. Biosensor applications in the detection of heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, biological oxygen demand, endocrine disruptors, hormones, dioxin, and phenolic and organophosphorus compounds. In: Tuteja SK, Arora D, Dilbaghi N, Lichtfouse E, editors. Nanosensors for Environmental Applications. Cham: Springer; 2020. p. 1–28. [DOI]

60.

Yarsan E, Yipel M. The important terms of marine pollution “biomarkers and biomonitoring, bioaccumulation, bioconcentration, biomagnification”. J Mol Biomark Diagn. 2013;S1:003. [DOI]

61.

Garelick H, Jones H. Reviews of Environmental Contamination Volume 197. Arsenic Pollution and Remediation: An International Perspective. Verlag New York: Springer; 2008. [DOI]

62.

Mackay D, Celsie AKD, Powell DE, Parnis JM. Bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, biomagnification and trophic magnification: a modelling perspective. Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2018;20:72–85. [DOI] [PubMed]

63.

Viarengo A, Canesi L. Mussels as biological indicators of pollution. Aquaculture. 1991;94:225–43. [DOI]

64.

García-Moll MP, García-Moll L, Carrasco-Correa EJ, Oliver M, Simó-Alfonso EF, Miró M. Biomimetic Dispersive Solid-Phase Microextraction: A Novel Concept for High-Throughput Estimation of Human Oral Absorption of Organic Compounds. Anal Chem. 2023;95:13123–31. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

65.

Maculewicz J, Świacka K, Kowalska D, Stepnowski P, Stolte S, Dołżonek J. In vitro methods for predicting the bioconcentration of xenobiotics in aquatic organisms. Sci Total Environ. 2020;739:140261. [DOI] [PubMed]

66.

Moisey J, Fisk AT, Hobson KA, Norstrom RJ. Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) Isomers and Chiral Signatures of α-HCH in the Arctic Marine Food Web of the Northwater Polynya. Environ Sci Technol. 2001;35:1920–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

67.

Wang Z, Li Y, Kong F, Li M, Xi M, Yu Z. How do trophic magnification factors (TMFs) and biomagnification factors (BMFs) perform on toxic pollutant bioaccumulation estimation in coastal and marine food webs. Reg Stud Mar Sci. 2021;44:101797. [DOI]

68.

Rios-Fuster B, Alomar C, Capó X, González GP, Martínez RMG, Rojas DLS, et al. Assessment of the impact of aquaculture facilities on transplanted mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis): Integrating plasticizers and physiological analyses as a biomonitoring strategy. J Hazard Mater. 2022;424:127264. [DOI] [PubMed]

69.

Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 February 2005 on maximum residue levels of pesticides in or on food and feed of plant and animal origin and amending Council Directive 91/414/EEC Text with EEA relevance [Internet]. [Cited 2024 Nov 10]. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2005/396/oj

70.

Regulation (EU) 2019/1021 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on persistent organic pollutants (recast) (Text with EEA relevance.) [Internet]. [Cited 2024 Nov 10]. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/1021/oj

71.

Vale P, Sampayo MAdM. First confirmation of human diarrhoeic poisonings by okadaic acid esters after ingestion of razor clams (Solen marginatus) and green crabs (Carcinus maenas) in Aveiro lagoon, Portugal and detection of okadaic acid esters in phytoplankton. Toxicon. 2002;40:989–96. [DOI] [PubMed]

72.

Torgersen T, Aasen J, Aune T. Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning by okadaic acid esters from Brown crabs (Cancer pagurus) in Norway. Toxicon. 2005;46:572–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

73.

Meng R, Du X, Ge K, Wu C, Zhang Z, Liang X, et al. Does climate change increase the risk of marine toxins? Insights from changing seawater conditions. Arch Toxicol. 2024;98:2743–62. [DOI] [PubMed]