Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
Fahy E, Subramaniam S, Brown HA, Glass CK, Merrill AH Jr, Murphy RC, et al. A comprehensive classification system for lipids.J Lipid Res. 2005;46:839–61. [DOI] [PubMed]
Fahy E, Cotter D, Sud M, Subramaniam S. Lipid classification, structures and tools.Biochim Biophys Acta. 2011;1811:637–47. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Scrimgeour CM, Harwood JL. Fatty acid and lipid structure. In: Gunstone FD, Harwood JL, Dijkstra AJ, editors. The Lipid Handbook with CD-ROM. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2006. pp. 15–50.
Meynier A, Genot C. Molecular and structural organization of lipids in foods: Their fate during digestion and impact in nutrition.Oilseeds Fats Crops Lipids. 2017;24:D2002. [DOI]
Field CJ, Robinson L. Dietary Fats.Adv Nutr. 2019;10:722–4. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kontogiorgos V. Introduction to Food Chemistry. Cham: Springer; 2021.
Custers, Emma EM, Kiliaan, Amanda J. Dietary lipids from body to brain.Prog Lipid Res. 2022;85:101144. [DOI] [PubMed]
Liu AG, Ford NA, Hu FB, Zelman KM, Mozaffarian D, Kris-Etherton PM. A healthy approach to dietary fats: understanding the science and taking action to reduce consumer confusion.Nutr J. 2017;16:53. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhang Y, Zhang T, Liang Y, Jiang L, Sui X. Dietary Bioactive Lipids: A Review on Absorption, Metabolism, and Health Properties.J Agric Food Chem. 2021;69:8929–43. [DOI] [PubMed]
Glick NR, Fischer MH. The role of essential fatty acids in human health.J Evidence-Based Complementary Altern Med. 2013;18:268–89. [DOI]
Wąsowicz E, Gramza A, Hęś M, Jeleń HH, Korczak J, Małecka M, et al. Oxidation of lipids in food.Pol J Food Nutr Sci. 2004;54:87–100.
Kanner J. Dietary advanced lipid oxidation endproducts are risk factors to human health.Mol Nutr Food Res. 2007;51:1094–101. [DOI] [PubMed]
Saieva C, Peluso M, Palli D, Cellai F, Ceroti M, Selvi V, et al. Dietary and lifestyle determinants of malondialdehyde DNA adducts in a representative sample of the Florence City population.Mutagenesis. 2016;31:475–80. [DOI] [PubMed]
Del Rio D, Stewart AJ, Pellegrini N. A review of recent studies on malondialdehyde as toxic molecule and biological marker of oxidative stress.Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2005;15:316–28. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kim J. Ketogenic diet: Old treatment, new beginning.Clin Neurophysiol Pract. 2017;2:161–2. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wilder RM, Boothby WM, Beeler C. Studies of the metabolism of diabetes.J Biol Chem. 1922;51:311–57. [DOI]
Wheless JW. History of the ketogenic diet.Epilepsia. 2008;49:3–5. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kaspar MB, Austin K, Huecker M, Sarav M. Ketogenic Diet: from the Historical Records to Use in Elite Athletes.Curr Nutr Rep. 2019;8:340–6. [DOI] [PubMed]
Sumithran P, Proietto J. Ketogenic diets for weight loss: A review of their principles, safety and efficacy.Obes Res Clin Pract. 2008;2:1–13. [DOI] [PubMed]
Lenzer J. Robert Coleman Atkins.BMJ. 2003;326:1090. [PMC]
Mahdi GS. The Atkin’s diet controversy.Ann Saudi Med. 2006;26:244–5. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Qi X, Tester RF. Fructose, galactose and glucose – In health and disease.Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2019;33:18–28. [DOI] [PubMed]
Qi X, Tester RF. Lactose, Maltose, and Sucrose in Health and Disease.Mol Nutr Food Res. 2020;64:e1901082. [DOI] [PubMed]
Sharma S, Jain P. The ketogenic diet and other dietary treatments for refractory epilepsy in children.Ann Indian Acad Neurol. 2014;17:253–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ye F, Li XJ, Jiang WL, Sun HB, Liu J. Efficacy of and patient compliance with a ketogenic diet in adults with intractable epilepsy: a meta-analysis.J Clin Neurol. 2015;11:26–31. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Green SF, Nguyen P, Kaalund-Hansen K, Rajakulendran S, Murphy E. Effectiveness, retention, and safety of modified ketogenic diet in adults with epilepsy at a tertiary-care centre in the UK.J Neurol. 2020;267:1171–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Barzegar M, Afghan M, Tarmahi V, Behtari M, Rahimi Khamaneh S, Raeisi S. Ketogenic diet: overview, types, and possible anti-seizure mechanisms.Nutr Neurosci. 2021;24:307–16. [DOI] [PubMed]
Crosby L, Davis B, Joshi S, Jardine M, Paul J, Neola M, et al. Ketogenic Diets and Chronic Disease: Weighing the Benefits Against the Risks.Front Nutr. 2021;8:702802. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Dowis K, Banga S. The Potential Health Benefits of the Ketogenic Diet: A Narrative Review.Nutrients. 2021;13:1654. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ko A, Kwon HE, Kim HD. Updates on the ketogenic diet therapy for pediatric epilepsy.Biomed J. 2022;45:19–26. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhu H, Bi D, Zhang Y, Kong C, Du J, Wu X, et al. Ketogenic diet for human diseases: the underlying mechanisms and potential for clinical implementations.Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2022;7:11. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Qi X, Tester RF. The ‘epileptic diet’- ketogenic and/or slow release of glucose intervention: A review.Clin Nutr. 2020;39:1324–30. [DOI] [PubMed]
Cuenoud B, Hartweg M, Godin JP, Croteau E, Maltais M, Castellano CA, et al. Metabolism of Exogenous D-Beta-Hydroxybutyrate, an Energy Substrate Avidly Consumed by the Heart and Kidney.Front Nutr. 2020;7:13. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Batch JT, Lamsal SP, Adkins M, Sultan S, Ramirez MN. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Ketogenic Diet: A Review Article.Cureus. 2020;12:e9639. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Harvey KL, Holcomb LE, Kolwicz SC Jr. Ketogenic Diets and Exercise Performance.Nutrients. 2019;11:2296. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Stanton R, Crowe T. Risks of a high-protein diet outweigh the benefits.Nature. 2006;440:868. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wali JA, Jarzebska N, Raubenheimer D, Simpson SJ, Rodionov RN, O’Sullivan JF. Cardio-Metabolic Effects of High-Fat Diets and Their Underlying Mechanisms—A Narrative Review.Nutrients. 2020;12:1505. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ross LJ, Byrnes A, Hay RL, Cawte A, Musial JE. Exploring the highs and lows of very low carbohydrate high fat diets on weight loss and diabetes- and cardiovascular disease-related risk markers: A systematic review.Nutr Diet. 2021;78:41–56. [DOI] [PubMed]
Cox PJ, Kirk T, Ashmore T, Willerton K, Evans R, Smith A, et al. Nutritional Ketosis Alters Fuel Preference and Thereby Endurance Performance in Athletes.Cell Metab. 2016;24:256–68. [DOI] [PubMed]
Egan B, D’Agostino DP. Fueling Performance: Ketones Enter the Mix.Cell Metab. 2016;24:373–5. [DOI] [PubMed]
Yurista SR, Chong CR, Badimon JJ, Kelly DP, de Boer RA, Westenbrink BD. Therapeutic Potential of Ketone Bodies for Patients With Cardiovascular Disease: JACC State-of-the-Art Review.J Am Coll Cardiol. 2021;77:1660–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Owen OE, Hanson RW. Ketone bodies. In: Martini L, editor. Encyclopedia of Endocrine Diseases. New York: Elsevier; 2004. pp. 125–36.
Stubbs BJ, Cox PJ, Evans RD, Santer P, Miller JJ, Faull OK, et al. On the Metabolism of Exogenous Ketones in Humans.Front Physiol. 2017;8:848. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Takahara S, Soni S, Maayah ZH, Ferdaoussi M, Dyck JRB. Ketone therapy for heart failure: current evidence for clinical use.Cardiovasc Res. 2022;118:977–87. [DOI] [PubMed]
Seyfried TN, Mukherjee P, Iyikesici MS, Slocum A, Kalamian M, Spinosa JP, et al. Consideration of Ketogenic Metabolic Therapy as a Complementary or Alternative Approach for Managing Breast Cancer.Front Nutr. 2020;7:21. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Neha, Chaudhary R. Ketogenic diet as a treatment and prevention strategy for cancer: A therapeutic alternative.Nutrition. 2024;124:112427. [DOI]
Paoli A, Bianco A, Moro T, Mota JF, Coelho-Ravagnani CF. The Effects of Ketogenic Diet on Insulin Sensitivity and Weight Loss, Which Came First: The Chicken or the Egg?Nutrients. 2023;15:3120. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Hashim SA, VanItallie TB. Ketone body therapy: from the ketogenic diet to the oral administration of ketone ester.J Lipid Res. 2014;55:1818–26. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kovács Z, D’Agostino DP, Diamond D, Kindy MS, Rogers C, Ari C. Therapeutic Potential of Exogenous Ketone Supplement Induced Ketosis in the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders: Review of Current Literature.Front Psychiatry. 2019;10:363. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Newman JC, Verdin E. β-Hydroxybutyrate: A Signaling Metabolite.Annu Rev Nutr. 2017;37:51–76. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Dashti HM, Mathew TC, Hussein T, Asfar SK, Behbahani A, Khoursheed MA, et al. Long-term effects of a ketogenic diet in obese patients.Exp Clin Cardiol. 2004;9:200–5. [PubMed] [PMC]
Desrosiers TA, Siega-Riz AM, Mosley BS, Meyer RE; National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Low carbohydrate diets may increase risk of neural tube defects.Birth Defects Res. 2018;110:901–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ferraro PM, Bargagli M, Trinchieri A, Gambaro G. Risk of Kidney Stones: Influence of Dietary Factors, Dietary Patterns, and Vegetarian–Vegan Diets.Nutrients. 2020;12:779. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Lian CY, Zhai ZZ, Li ZF, Wang L. High fat diet-triggered non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A review of proposed mechanisms.Chem Biol Interact. 2020;330:109199. [DOI] [PubMed]
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol.EFSA J. 2010;8:1461. [DOI]
Eckel RH, Jakicic JM, Ard JD, de Jesus JM, Houston Miller N, Hubbard VS, et al.; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 2013 AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines.J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:2960–84. [DOI] [PubMed]
Goldberg IJ, Ibrahim N, Bredefeld C, Foo S, Lim V, Gutman D, et al. Ketogenic diets, not for everyone.J Clin Lipidol. 2021;15:61–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Williams TJ, Cervenka MC. The role for ketogenic diets in epilepsy and status epilepticus in adults.Clin Neurophysiol Pract. 2017;2:154–60. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Guasch-Ferré M, Babio N, Martínez-González MA, Corella D, Ros E, Martín-Peláez S, et al.; PREDIMED Study Investigators. Dietary fat intake and risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in a population at high risk of cardiovascular disease.Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;102:1563–73. [DOI] [PubMed]
Nettleton JA, Brouwer IA, Geleijnse JM, Hornstra G. Saturated Fat Consumption and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease and Ischemic Stroke: A Science Update.Ann Nutr Metab. 2017;70:26–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Forouhi NG, Krauss RM, Taubes G, Willett W. Dietary fat and cardiometabolic health: evidence, controversies, and consensus for guidance.BMJ. 2018;361:k2139. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Nuttall FQ. Body Mass Index: Obesity, BMI, and Health: A Critical Review.Nutr Today. 2015;50:117–28. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Law M. Dietary fat and adult diseases and the implications for childhood nutrition: an epidemiologic approach.Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:1291S–6S. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kumar NK, Merrill JD, Carlson S, German J, Yancy WS Jr. Adherence to Low-Carbohydrate Diets in Patients with Diabetes: A Narrative Review.Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2022;15:477–98. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bostock EC, Kirkby KC, Taylor BV. The Current Status of the Ketogenic Diet in Psychiatry.Front Psychiatry. 2017;8:43. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ludwig DS. The Ketogenic Diet: Evidence for Optimism but High-Quality Research Needed.J Nutr. 2020;150:1354–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Operto FF, Matricardi S, Pastorino GMG, Verrotti A, Coppola G. The Ketogenic Diet for the Treatment of Mood Disorders in Comorbidity With Epilepsy in Children and Adolescents.Front Pharmacol. 2020;11:578396. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tillery EE, Ellis KD, Threatt TB, Reyes HA, Plummer CS, Barney LR. The use of the ketogenic diet in the treatment of psychiatric disorders.Ment Health Clin. 2021;11:211–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Włodarczyk A, Cubała WJ, Stawicki M. Ketogenic diet for depression: A potential dietary regimen to maintain euthymia?Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2021;109:110257. [DOI] [PubMed]
Shamshtein D, Liwinski T. Ketogenic therapy for major depressive disorder: A review of neurobiological evidence.Recent Prog Nutr. 2022;2:003. [DOI]
Adjibade M, Lemogne C, Julia C, Hercberg S, Galan P, Assmann KE, et al. Prospective association between adherence to dietary recommendations and incident depressive symptoms in the French NutriNet-Santé cohort.Br J Nutr. 2018;120:290–300. [DOI] [PubMed]
Rog J, Wingralek Z, Nowak K, Grudzień M, Grunwald A, Banaszek A, et al. The Potential Role of the Ketogenic Diet in Serious Mental Illness: Current Evidence, Safety, and Practical Advice.J Clin Med. 2024;13:2819. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Gershuni VM, Yan SL, Medici V. Nutritional Ketosis for Weight Management and Reversal of Metabolic Syndrome.Curr Nutr Rep. 2018;7:97–106. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kirkpatrick CF, Bolick JP, Kris-Etherton PM, Sikand G, Aspry KE, Soffer DE, et al. Review of current evidence and clinical recommendations on the effects of low-carbohydrate and very-low-carbohydrate (including ketogenic) diets for the management of body weight and other cardiometabolic risk factors: A scientific statement from the National Lipid Association Nutrition and Lifestyle Task Force.J Clin Lipidol. 2019;13:689–711.e1. [DOI] [PubMed]
Messer RD, Kossoff EH. Ketogenic diets for the treatment of epilepsy. In: Watson RR, Preedy VR, editors. Bioactive Nutraceuticals and Dietary Supplements in Neurological and Brain Disease. San Diego: Academic Press; 2015. pp. 441–8.
Youngson NA, Morris MJ, Ballard JWO. The mechanisms mediating the antiepileptic effects of the ketogenic diet, and potential opportunities for improvement with metabolism-altering drugs.Seizure. 2017;52:15–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
D’Andrea Meira I, Romão TT, Pires do Prado HJ, Krüger LT, Pires MEP, da Conceição PO. Ketogenic Diet and Epilepsy: What We Know So Far.Front Neurosci. 2019;13:5. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ułamek-Kozioł M, Czuczwar SJ, Januszewski S, Pluta R. Ketogenic Diet and Epilepsy.Nutrients. 2019;11:2510. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Paoli A, Bianco A, Grimaldi KA. The Ketogenic Diet and Sport: A Possible Marriage?Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2015;43:153–62. [DOI] [PubMed]
Pinckaers PJ, Churchward-Venne TA, Bailey D, van Loon LJ. Ketone Bodies and Exercise Performance: The Next Magic Bullet or Merely Hype?Sports Med. 2017;47:383–91. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
McSwiney FT, Doyle L, Plews DJ, Zinn C. Impact Of Ketogenic Diet On Athletes: Current Insights.Open Access J Sports Med. 2019;10:171–83. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bailey CP, Hennessy E. A review of the ketogenic diet for endurance athletes: performance enhancer or placebo effect?J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2020;17:33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ting R, Dugré N, Allan GM, Lindblad AJ. Ketogenic diet for weight loss.Can Fam Physician. 2018;64:906. [PubMed] [PMC]