Summary of clinical studies on the effects of Lycium barbarum (goji berry) supplementation on health conditions

ConditionsStudy designParticipant informationKey findingsReference
General well-being, neurologic/psychologic traits, gastrointestinal functionRandomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 14 days durationHealthy adults, 16 in the GoChi group, 18 in the control group

  • Significant improvements in energy, athletic performance, sleep quality, mental focus, contentment, calmness, and gastrointestinal regularity in the GoChi group

  • Reduced fatigue and stress compared to placebo

  • No significant changes in body weight, BMI, blood pressure, or pulse rate

[33]
Immune function, general well-beingRandomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 30 days intervention60 healthy older adults, aged 55–72

  • GoChi group showed significant increases in lymphocytes, IL-2, and IgG

  • Improved subjective well-being (reduced fatigue, improved sleep)

  • No adverse effects or significant changes in CD4, CD8, NK cells, or body metrics

[34]
Immune response, vaccine efficacyRandomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 3 months intervention150 healthy elderly, aged 65–70

  • LWB group showed significantly higher postvaccination serum influenza-specific IgG and seroconversion rates

  • No significant impact on inflammatory markers or hypersensitivity

  • No adverse effects reported

[35]
Immune response, vaccine efficacy, antioxidant propertiesRandomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 3 months duration150 healthy elderly adults, aged 65–70, community-dwelling Chinese population

  • LWB group showed significantly higher post-vaccination serum influenza-specific IgG levels

  • Increased seroconversion rate between days 30 and 90

  • No significant effects on delayed-type hypersensitivity or inflammatory markers

  • No serious adverse effects reported

[36]
General health (sleep, energy, TCM outcomes)Double-blind, randomised controlled27 adults, 14 in the goji berry group (20 g/day), 13 in the control group (15.7 g green raisins/day)

  • No significant differences between groups in primary outcomes

  • Slight changes in waist circumference and blood pressure over time in both groups

  • Results indicate changes may be due to external factors or shared bioactivity between goji berries and raisins

  • The study does not confirm health benefits specific to goji berry consumption

[37]
Oxidant stress-related conditionsRandomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 30 days duration50 healthy Chinese adults, aged 55–72, GoChi (120 mL/day)

  • Significant increase in antioxidant markers in the GoChi group: SOD +8.4%, GSH-Px +9.9%, MDA –8.7%

  • No significant changes in the placebo group

  • GoChi enhanced endogenous antioxidant activity, suggesting a potential for reducing free radical-related conditions

[38]
Oxidative stress, age-related disordersParallel design, randomised controlled, 16 weeks duration40 middle-aged and older adults, 22 in the wolfberry group, 18 in the control group, 15 g dried wolfberry/day

  • Significant increase in plasma zeaxanthin, plasma 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α, and skin carotenoids in the wolfberry group (P < 0.05)

  • Inverse correlation between plasma zeaxanthin and plasma 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α (P = 0.05)

  • Wolfberry consumption may help attenuate lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in older adults

[39]
Depression, inflammatory responseDouble-blinded, randomised, placebo-controlled, 6 weeks duration29 adolescents with subthreshold depression, aged 14–16

  • LBP (300 mg/day) significantly reduced depressive symptoms in adolescents

  • Decreased IL-17A levels in the LBP group

  • LBP suppressed immune response, suggesting its antidepressant effect may be linked to reducing inflammation

[40]
Subthreshold depressionRandomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial29 adolescents with subthreshold depression (15.13 ± 2.17 years)

  • LBP (300 mg/day) significantly reduced depressive symptoms (measured by HAMD-24) compared to placebo

  • Higher remission rate (HAMD-24 score ≤ 7) in the LBP group

  • No significant differences in secondary measures BDI-II, PSQI, Kessler, SCARED

  • LBP was well tolerated with no adverse events

[41]
MDDDouble-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, 6 weeks duration284 estimated participants, aged 18–60 yearsOngoing study[42]
AMDRandomised, unmasked, parallel-arm study, 90 days duration27 participants, aged 45–65, consuming either 28 g goji berries or a supplement (6 mg lutein and 4 mg zeaxanthin) five times weekly

  • Goji berry intake significantly increased MPOD at 0.25 and 1.75 retinal eccentricities (P = 0.029 and P = 0.044)

  • Skin carotenoids significantly increased in the goji berry group at day 45 (P = 0.025) and day 90 (P = 0.006)

  • No changes observed in the lutein/zeaxanthin group

  • Regular goji berry intake may help prevent or delay AMD development

[43]
AMDSingle-blinded, placebo-controlled, parallel design, 28 days duration27 healthy subjects (14 wolfberry group, 13 control), consuming 15 g wolfberry (3 mg zeaxanthin) daily

  • Plasma zeaxanthin levels increased 2.5-fold in the wolfberry group (0.038 µM to 0.096 µM, P < 0.01)

  • No significant change in the control group (0.038 µM to 0.043 µM, P > 0.05)

  • Zeaxanthin in wolfberries is bioavailable and increases fasting plasma zeaxanthin levels

[44]
Macular healthDouble-masked, randomised, placebo-controlled, 90 days duration150 healthy elderly subjects (65–70 years), 75 in the LWB group, 75 in the control group, supplemented daily with 13.7 g/day LWB or placebo

  • LWB supplementation stabilised macular pigmentation and prevented soft drusen accumulation

  • Plasma zeaxanthin increased by 26% and antioxidant capacity by 57% in the LWB group (P < 0.05), with no changes in the placebo group

  • No adverse events reported in either group

[45]
AMDRandomised, single-blind, cross-over12 volunteers, administered either 5 mg of esterified or non-esterified 3R,3'R-zeaxanthin, suspended in yogurt with a balanced breakfast, with a 3-week depletion period between interventions

  • Plasma 3R,3'R-zeaxanthin concentration increased significantly after consumption of both esterified and non-esterified forms (P = 0.05), peaking at 9–24 h

  • Esterified 3R,3'R-zeaxanthin showed enhanced bioavailability compared to the non-esterified form

  • No meso-zeaxanthin formation observed during the study

[46]
AMDDouble-blinded, controlled, human intervention, multiple cross-over design, 3–5 weeks washout period12 healthy, consenting subjects, aged 21–30, administered a zeaxanthin-standardised dose (15 mg) from three wolfberry formulations (hot water, warm skimmed milk, and hot skimmed milk) in randomised order

  • Zeaxanthin bioavailability peaked at 6 h post-ingestion for all formulations

  • Bioavailability from the hot milk formulation was significantly higher (P < 0.001) than the hot water and warm milk formulations

  • Hot milk formulation showed a 3-fold enhanced bioavailability of zeaxanthin compared to the other two treatments

[47]
RPDouble-masked, placebo-controlled42 RP patients (23 in the treatment, 19 in the control group) receiving daily L. barbarum or placebo granules for 12 months

  • No deterioration in visual acuity in the L. barbarum group compared to the placebo (P = 0.001)

  • No macular thinning in the L. barbarum group (P = 0.008)

  • No significant differences in visual field sensitivity or electroretinogram ffERG parameters

[48]
Mild hypercholesterolemia, overweightRandomised, double-blind, parallel groups, 8 weeks duration53 overweight and hypercholesterolemic subjects, 26 in the WBE group, 27 in the placebo group, consuming 13.5 g WBE or placebo daily

  • Higher proportion of deregulated mRNAs related to oxidative and inflammatory stress in the WBE group

[49]
Body weight, central adiposityRandomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multiple-period crossover design8 adult subjects (age 45 ± 5 years) with varying doses of dietary fibre (0 g, 1 g, 5 g, 10 g) and 15 mL of L. barbarum juice

  • L. barbarum juice increased RMR when combined with dietary fibre

  • RMR significantly increased by 7.2% (5 g fibre) and 8.4% (10 g fibre) compared to baseline (P < 0.05)

[50]
Weight loss, waist circumferenceRandomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 14 days intervention15 healthy adults (aged 34 years, BMI = 29 kg/m2), multiple doses of L. barbarum

  • L. barbarum increased PPEE by 10% at 1 h (120 mL dose, P < 0.05)

  • Significant reduction in waist circumference by 5.5 cm ± 0.8 cm compared to the placebo group (P < 0.01)

[51]
Obesity prevention, metabolismRandomised, double-blind, crossover17 healthy overweight males, aged 18–65

  • No significant differences in energy expenditure, respiratory quotient, glucose, triacylglycerol, and free fatty acids post-meal between L. barbarum and control meals (P > 0.05)

[52]
Metabolomics, lipid metabolismRandomised controlled, 4 weeks duration42 healthy male adults, LBP supplementation (300 mg/day)

  • Significant decrease in TG/HDL index

  • Increased serum levels of phosphate and leucine

  • Decreased d-talose, 3-aminoisobutyric acid, threitol, ribose, and tyrosine in urine

  • Glycerophospholipid and tyrosine metabolism impacted by LBP supplementation

[53]
Type 2 diabetesRandomised controlled, double-blind67 type 2 diabetes patients, 37 in the LBP group, 30 in the control group

  • Significant reduction in serum glucose

  • Increased insulinogenic index

  • Increased HDL levels

  • More effective hypoglycaemic effects in non-medicated patients

  • LBP showed potential as a treatment aid for type 2 diabetes

[54]
Cardiovascular healthParallel design, randomised controlled40 Singaporean adults, aged 50–64

  • Wolfberry consumption with a healthy diet increased plasma total nitrate/nitrite and reduced endothelin-1

  • HDL cholesterol increased in the wolfberry group

  • No significant changes in other cardiovascular biomarkers

  • Wolfberry enhanced the cardiovascular benefits of a HDP

[55]
Cardiovascular healthRandomised, parallel design, 16 weeks duration41 middle-aged and older adults

  • Wolfberry and control groups showed changes in 27 and 42 lipid species, respectively

  • Significant correlations between lipid species and CVD risk factors

  • Wolfberry increased HDL cholesterol, correlated with phosphatidylcholine species

  • No differential CVD risk associations between groups

[56]
Immune function, antioxidant activityRandomised controlled, 6 weeks duration46 male taekwondo athletes, aged 18–22, 23 per group

  • Increased CD4+ cells, CD4+/CD8+ ratio, NK cells in the wolfberry polysaccharide group (P < 0.05)

  • Significant improvement in IgA, IgG, and antioxidant markers (MDA, SOD, CAT) (P < 0.05)

  • Enhanced performance in the AMCAT system evaluation for the intervention group (P < 0.05)

[57]
MS, cardiovascular healthRandomised controlled, parallel design, 45 days duration50 MS patients, 15 males, 35 females

  • Significant reduction in transaminases and waist circumference in the test group

  • Improvement in lipid profile and increased glutathione and CAT levels (P < 0.05)

  • Reduction in lipid peroxidation in the test group

[58]
Atherosclerosis, cardiovascular healthControlled trial comparing LBP and Qigong exercise, 3 months durationElderly male participants, administered LBP or engaged in Qigong exercise

  • LBP and Qigong exercise both reduced plasma TGs, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol

  • Both increased HDL cholesterol and helped modulate blood pressure

  • Healthy Qigong exercise had comparable effects to LBP

[59]
Cardiovascular health16-week intervention with HDP with or without wolfberries24 middle-aged and older adults, 9 in the HDP group, 15 in the HDP + wolfberry group

  • HDP improved BOEC colony growth, tube formation, and migration activity

  • Wolfberry supplementation did not enhance BOEC function further

  • BOEC colony number positively correlated with blood pressure, atherogenic index, vascular age, and Framingham risk score

[60]
Advanced cancer (multiple types)Clinical trial with LAK/IL-2 + LBP combination79 advanced cancer patients, 75 evaluable (malignant melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, colorectal carcinoma, lung cancer, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, malignant hydrothorax)

  • LAK/IL-2 + LBP group showed a 40.9% response rate vs. 16.1% in LAK/IL-2 only (P < 0.05)

  • Longer remission in the LAK/IL-2 + LBP group

  • Increased NK and LAK cell activity with LBP supplementation

  • LBP is a potential adjuvant for cancer biotherapy

[61]
NAFLDRandomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled50 NAFLD patientsOngoing trial[62]

AMCAT: Agarose Microscopy-based Cell Assay Technology; AMD: age-related macular degeneration; BDI-II: Beck Depression Inventory-Second Edition; BMI: body mass index; BOEC: blood outgrowth endothelial cell; CAT: catalase; CVD: cardiovascular disease; ffERG: full-field electroretinography; GSH-Px: glutathione peroxidase; HAMD: Hamilton Depression Rating Scale; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; HDP: healthy dietary pattern; IgG: immunoglobulin G; IL: interleukin; Kessler: Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10); LAK: lymphokine-activated killer; LBP: Lycium barbarum polysaccharide; L. barbarum: Lycium barbarum; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; LWB: Lacto-Wolfberry; MDA: malondialdehyde; MDD: major depressive disorder; MPOD: macular pigment optical density; MS: metabolic syndrome; NAFLD: non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; NK: natural killer; PPEE: postprandial energy expenditure; PSQI: Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; RMR: resting metabolic rate; RP: retinitis pigmentosa; SCARED: Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders; SOD: superoxide dismutase; TCM: traditional Chinese medicine; TG: triglyceride; WBE: aqueous extract of wolfberry fruit