Table Info

Table 1.

Global food security with agricultural policies

The aspect of food security	Agricultural policies	Examples
Food safety	Regulations ensure food products are free from harmful contaminants, pesticides, and pathogens.	Food and Drug Administration (FDA), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) [13, 71]
Environmental sustainability	Laws and policies promote sustainable farming practices to protect soil, water, and biodiversity.	European Union (EU), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [72, 73]
Labor conditions	Protocols ensure fair wages and safe working conditions and prohibit child labor.	International Labor Organization (ILO), Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) [20, 74–76]
Trade policies	Policies govern the import and export of agricultural products, affecting global food availability and prices.	World Trade Organization (WTO), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) [28, 77, 78]
International cooperation	Global standards and guidelines harmonize regulations to address food security challenges collaboratively.	Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [30, 79]
Climate change adaptation	Guidelines promote climate-resilient agricultural practices to mitigate the impacts of extreme weather.	Government of Australia (GA), EU [80–82]
Technological integration	Organizing overseas the safe integration of biotechnology and digital agriculture innovations.	Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (USDA), EU [81–83]
Capacity building	International aid and training programs enhance regulatory capabilities in developing countries.	FAO, United States Agency for International Development (USAID) [78, 84, 85]

Declarations

Author contributions

SI: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Resources, Data curation, Conceptualization, Funding acquisition.

Conflicts of interest

The author declares that he has no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

United States Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDA-NIFA), Grant project [GR100153]. The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

References

FAO [Internet]. FAO; c2025 [cited 2025 Feb 25]. Available from: https://www.fao.org

Godfray HC, Beddington JR, Crute IR, Haddad L, Lawrence D, Muir JF, et al. Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science. 2010;327:812–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

Grimi A, Bono BC, Lazzarin SM, Marcheselli S, Pessina F, Riva M. Gliomagenesis, Epileptogenesis, and Remodeling of Neural Circuits: Relevance for Novel Treatment Strategies in Low- and High-Grade Gliomas. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25:8953. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Farsund AA, Daugbjerg C, Langhelle O. Food security and trade: reconciling discourses in the Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Trade Organization. Food Sec. 2015;7:383–91. [DOI]

Yevhen M, Koblianska I, Yarova I, Kovalova O, Bashlai S. Food security, human health, and economy: a holistic approach to sustainable regulation. Agric Resour Econ: Int Sci E-J. 2023;9:50–78. [DOI]

United Nations (UN). 2025. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [Internet]. United Nations; [cited 2025 Mar 10]. Available from: https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda

Nafia ZI, Shodiq IZ, Handayani L. Nutritional Status of Children Under Five Years in the Work Area of Puskesmas Cipadung. Dis Prev Public Health J. 2021;15:125. [DOI]

Amani HKR. Agricultural development and food security in sub-Saharan Africa Tanzania Country report [Internet]. [cited 2024 Oct 30]. Available from: https://www.sarpn.org/documents/d0001583/FAO2005_Casestudies_Tanzania.pdf

Tscharntke T, Clough Y, Wanger TC, Jackson L, Motzke I, Perfecto I, et al. Global food security, biodiversity conservation and the future of agricultural intensification. Biol Conserv. 2012;151:53–9. [DOI]

10.

Barrett CB. Overcoming global food security challenges through science and solidarity. Am J Agric Econ. 2021;103:422–47. [DOI]

11.

Hatab AA, Cavinato MER, Lindemer A, Lagerkvist CJ. Urban sprawl, food security and agricultural systems in developing countries: A systematic review of the literature. Cities. 2019;94:129–42.

12.

FDA (U. S. Food & Drug) [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 31]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/

13.

EFSA [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 18]. Available from: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en

14.

Beckman J, Ivanic M, Jelliffe JL, Baquedano FG, Scott SG. Economic and food security impacts of agricultural input reduction under the European Union Green Deal’s Farm to Fork and biodiversity strategies [Internet]. [cited 2024 Dec 17]. Available from: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307277/?v=pdf

15.

Divanbeigi R, Saliola F. Regulation and the Transformation of Agriculture [Internet]. [cited 2024 Nov 25]. Available from: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a487e7fa-be93-40cc-9d17-44428af322d8/content

16.

Kumari R, Suman K, Karmakar S, Mishra V, Lakra SG, Saurav GK, et al. Regulation and safety measures for nanotechnology-based agri-products. Front Genome Ed. 2023;5:12009897. [DOI]

17.

Smith F. Food security and international agricultural trade regulation: Old problems, new perspectives. In: McMahon IR, Desta MG, editors. Research Handbook on the WTO Agriculture Agreement. Edward Elgar Publishing; 2012.

18.

CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) [Internet]. [cited 2024 Oct 30]. Available from: https://www.cgiar.org/

19.

FAO’s Data Lab [Internet]. FAO; c2025 [cited 2025 Jan 10]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/datalab/en

20.

ILO (International Labor Organization) [Internet]. ILO; c1996–2025 [cited 2025 Jan 31]. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/topics-and-sectors/safety-and-health-work

21.

Higgins V, Lawrence G, editors. Agricultural Governance: Globalization and the new politics of regulation. Routledge; 2007.

22.

Swaminathan MS. An Evergreen Revolution. Crop Sci. 2006;46:2293–303. [DOI]

23.

de Waal A. Famine that Kills: Darfur, Sudan. Oxford University Press; 2005.

24.

This Tiny Country Feeds the World [Internet]. National Geographic Partners, LLC; c2015–2025 [cited 2025 Jan 30]. Available from: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/holland-agriculture-sustainable-farming

25.

Schlenker W, Lobell DB. Robust Negative Impacts of Climate Change on African Agriculture. Environ Res Lett. 2010;5:1–8. [DOI]

26.

FAO. Evaluation of FAO’s support to climate action (SDG 13) and the implementation of the FAO Strategy on climate change (2017) [Internet]. FAO; c2021 [cited 2025 Jan 9]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/cb3738en/cb3738en.pdf

27.

WTO (World Trade Organization) [Internet]. World Trade Organization; c2025 [cited 2025 Jan 15]. Available from: https://www.wto.org/

28.

WTO (World Trade Organization). WTO trade topics [Internet]. World Trade Organization; c2025 [cited 2025 Jan 16]. Available from: https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tratop_e.htm

29.

WHO (World Health Organization) [Internet]. WHO; c2025 [cited 2024 Dec 22]. Available from: https://www.who.int/

30.

UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 12]. Available from: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement

31.

USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) [Internet]. [cited 2024 Nov 27]. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/pesticides

32.

Qaim M. Role of new plant breeding technologies for food security and sustainable agricultural development. Appl Econ Perspect Policy. 2020;42;129–50. [DOI]

33.

Chan EMH, Cheung J, Leslie CA, Lau YY, Suen DWS, Tsang CW. Revolutionizing the Textile and Clothing Industry: Pioneering Sustainability and Resilience in a Post-COVID Era. Sustainability. 2024;16:2474. [DOI]

34.

FAO. World Food and Agriculture—Statistical Yearbook 2020 [Internet]. FAO; c2020 [cited 2025 Feb 2]. Available from: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/fe3b44ad-553a-4d2f-b8d9-d0ef1dc509ed/content

35.

Kulkarni KP, Tayade R, Asekova S, Song JT, Shannon JG, Lee JD. Harnessing the Potential of Forage Legumes, Alfalfa, Soybean, and Cowpea for Sustainable Agriculture and Global Food Security. Front Plant Sci. 2018;9:1314. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

36.

FAO. The Future of Food and Agriculture—Trends and Challenges [Internet]. Rome: FAO; c2017 [cited 2025 Mar 1]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6583e.pdf

37.

Foley JA, Ramankutty N, Brauman KA, Cassidy ES, Gerber JS, Johnston M, et al. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature. 2011;478:337–42. [DOI] [PubMed]

38.

Pretty J, Bharucha ZP. Sustainable intensification in agricultural systems. Ann Bot. 2014;114:1571–96. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

39.

FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2021: transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all [Internet]. Rome: FAO; c2021 [cited 2024 Nov 7]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/cb4474en/cb4474en.pdf

40.

Baryshnikova N, Altukhov P, Naidenova N, Shkryabina A. Ensuring global food security: Transforming approaches in the context of agriculture 5.0. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2022;988:032024. [DOI]

41.

Stefanis C. Global food security: An agricultural perspective. J Agric Sustainability. 2014;6:23–42.

42.

Calicioglu O, Flammini A, Bracco S, Bellù L, Sims R. The Future Challenges of Food and Agriculture: An Integrated Analysis of Trends and Solutions. Sustainability. 2019;11:222. [DOI]

43.

FAO. Policy Brief: Food Security [Internet]. c2025 [cited 2025 Feb 9]. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/policy-brief-food-security-issue-2-june-2006

44.

World Bank Group. Agriculture and Food [Internet]. World Bank Group; c2025 [cited 2025 Mar 1]. Available from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture

45.

Baldos ULC, Hertel TW. Global food security in 2050: the role of agricultural productivity and climate change. Aust J Agric Resour Econ. 2014;58:554–70. [DOI]

46.

Hanjra MA, Qureshi ME. Global water crisis and future food security in an era of climate change. Food Policy. 2010;35:365–77. [DOI]

47.

Anderson W, Baethgen W, Capitanio F, Ciais P, Cook BI, da Cunha CGR, et al. Climate variability and simultaneous breadbasket yield shocks as observed in long-term yield records. Agric For Meteorol. 2023;331:109321. [DOI]

48.

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Climate Change and Land. An IPCC Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems [Internet]. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; c2019 [cited 2024 Sep 29]. Available from: https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/11/SRCCL-Full-Report-Compiled-191128.pdf

49.

Cottrell RS, Nash KL, Halpern BS, Remenyi TA, Corney SP, Fleming A, et al. Food production shocks across land and sea. Nat Sustainability. 2019;2:130–7. [DOI]

50.

de Raymond AB, Alpha A, Ben-Ari T, Daviron B, Nesme T, Tétart G. Systemic risk and food security. Emerging trends and future avenues for research. Global Food Secur. 2021;29:100547. [DOI]

51.

García Martínez JB, Behr J, Pearce J, Denkenberger D. Resilient foods for preventing global famine: a review of food supply interventions for global catastrophic food shocks including nuclear winter and infrastructure collapse. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2025:1–27. [DOI] [PubMed]

52.

Daniel JS, Jacobs JM, Douglas E, Mallick RB, Hayhoe K. Impact of Climate Change on Pavement Performance: Preliminary Lessons Learned through the Infrastructure and Climate Network (ICNet). Proceedings of Climatic Effects on Pavement and Geotechnical Infrastructure; 2014 Apr 11. Reston, VA: ASCE; 2014. pp. 1–9.

53.

Admin. The Future of Agriculture: Innovations, Challenges, and Sustainability [Internet]. Rulox Capital Limited; c2020 [cited 2024 Jun 30]. Available from: https://ruloxcaplimited.com/blog-detail/68989552536034187502

54.

UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification). Global Land Outlook [Internet]. UNCCD; c2017 [cited 2025 Feb 1]. Available from: https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/documents/2017-09/GLO_Full_Report_low_res.pdf

55.

FAO. (2024). AQUASTAT – FAO’s Global Information System on Water and Agriculture [Internet]. [cited 2025 Feb 8]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/

56.

Lazaro SAM, Baba VF. Who is responsible for developing energy policy interventions in Mozambique? A stakeholder analysis and social network analysis. Int J Energy Sect Manage. 2024;18:1041–65. [DOI]

57.

Kopittke PM, Menzies NW, Wang P, McKenna BA, Lombi E. Soil and the intensification of agriculture for global food security. Environ Int. 2019;132:105078. [DOI] [PubMed]

58.

Chiarolla C. Intellectual property, agriculture and global food security: The privatisation of crop diversity. Edward Elgar Publishing; 2011.

59.

FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, WHO. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Roma: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2020.

60.

Wang Y, Kang M, Liu Y, Li J, Xue K, Wang X, et al. Can digital intelligence and cyber-physical-social systems achieve global food security and sustainability? IEEE. 2023;10:2070–80. [DOI]

61.

Schmidhuber J, Tubiello FN. Global food security under climate change. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104:19703–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

62.

Balasundram,SK, Shamshiri RR, Sridhara S, Rizan N. The role of digital agriculture in mitigating climate change and ensuring food security: An overview. Sustainability. 2023;15:5325. [DOI]

63.

Devendra P, Neupane RC, Sigdel S, Poudel P, Khanal AR. COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, and conflicts on agriculture: A trio of challenges to global food security. Sustainability. 2023;15:8280. [DOI]

64.

Andrianarimanana MH, Yongjian P, Rabezanahary Tanteliniaina MF. Assessment of the importance of climate, land, and soil on the global supply for agricultural products and global food security: Evidence from Madagascar. Food Policy. 2023;115:102403. [DOI]

65.

Diaz-Ambrona CGH, Maletta E. Achieving global food security through sustainable development of agriculture and food systems with regard to nutrients, soil, land, and waste management. Curr Sustainable/Renewable Energy Rep. 2014;1:57–65. [DOI]

66.

FAO. The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture [Internet]. FAO; c2025 [cited 2025 Jan 17]. Available from: https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/b355c300-72ed-4a63-be07-8295c80ec7f1

67.

Chen X, Shuai C, Wu Y. Global food stability and its socio‐economic determinants towards sustainable development goal 2 (Zero Hunger). Sustainable Dev. 2023;31:1768–80. [DOI]

68.

Brenya R, Zhu J. Agricultural extension and food security – The case of Uganda. Global Food Secur. 2023;36:100678. [DOI]

69.

IFAD. Rural Development Report 2016: Fostering inclusive rural transformation [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 17]. Available from: https://www.ifad.org/en/web/knowledge/-/publication/rural-development-report-2016

70.

Pingali P. Are the lessons from the Green Revolution relevant for agricultural growth and food security in the twenty-first century. In: Estudillo JP, Kijima Y, Sonobe T, editors. Agricultural Development in Asia and Africa. Springer; 2016. pp. 21–32.

71.

Codex Alimentarius [Internet]. FAO/WHO; c2025 [cited 2025 Jan 19]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/en/

72.

Australia Government [Internet]. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry; [cited 2025 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.agriculture.gov.au/

73.

Agriculture Innovation [Internet]. [cited 2024 Dec 31]. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/eip/agriculture/en/

74.

EEA (European Environment Agency) [Internet]. [cited 2024 Nov 30]. Available from: https://www.eea.europa.eu/en

75.

USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). Biotechnology [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 2]. Available from: https://www.usda.gov/topics/biotechnology

76.

FAO. FAO Strategy on Climate Change 2022–2031[Internet]. FAO; c2025 [cited 2025 Feb 28]. Available from: https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/7b9bf435-b12b-4abf-94c0-4806d3b97109

77.

Todeschini LB, Alves RCS, Roehe AV. Clinical, histopathological and immunohistochemical analysis of vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Rev Bras Ginecol Obstet. 2024;46:e-rbgo91. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

78.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Technical Cooperation Programme [Internet]. FAO; c2025 [cited 2024 Dec 23]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/technical-cooperation-programme/en/

79.

Gaupp F, Hall J, Hochrainer-Stigler S, Dadson S. Changing risks of simultaneous global breadbasket failure. Nat Clim Change. 2020;10:54–7. [DOI]

80.

Connor DJ. Land required for legumes restricts the contribution of organic agriculture to global food security. Outlook Agric. 2018;47:277–82.

81.

Harington CR. The Year Without a Summer? [Internet]. [cited 2024 Dec 21]. Available from: https://ia800203.us.archive.org/18/items/yearwithoutsumme1992hari/yearwithoutsumme1992hari.pdf

82.

Raible CC, Brönnimann S, Auchmann R, Brohan P, Frölicher TL, Graf HF, et al. Tambora 1815 as a test case for high impact volcanic eruptions: Earth system effects. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Change. 2016;7:569–89. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

83.

Crumpler K, Abi Khalil R, Tanganelli E, Rai N, Roffredi L, Meybeck A, et al. 2021 (Interim) Global update report: Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in the Nationally Determined Contributions [Internet]. Rome: FAO; c2025 [cited 2025 Jan 31]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4060/cb7442en

84.

Juneja K, Sinha R. Conceptual understanding of Sustainable Health and Linking Nutrition to Sustainable Development Goals [Internet]. [cited 2025 Feb 11]. Available from: https://www.iapsmupuk.org/journal/index.php/IJCH/article/view/2562

85.

Mishenin Y, Yarova I, Koblianska I. Ecologically harmonized agricultural management for global food security. In: Jhariya MK, Meena RS, Banerjee A, editors. Ecological intensification of natural resources for sustainable agriculture. Singapore: Springer; 2021. pp. 29–76.

86.

HLPE. Multi-stakeholder partnerships to finance and improve food security and nutrition in the framework of the 2030 Agenda [Internet]. Rome: FAO; c2018 [cited 2024 Dec 28]. Available from: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/527b731c-1593-4d59-b7c2-b1df90bcf6cd/content

87.

FDA Food Code [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 19]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/food/retail-food-protection/fda-food-code

88.

EC (European Commission). Common Agricultural Policy [Internet]. [cited 2024 Dec 22]. Available from: https://agriculture.ec.europa.eu/common-agricultural-policy_en

89.

EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Sustainability [Internet]. [cited 2025 Feb 1]. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/sustainability

90.

Congress.GOV [Internet]. [cited 2024 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.congress.gov/

91.

U.S. Department of Labor. Wages and the Fair Labor Standards Act [Internet]. [cited 2024 Nov 12]. Available from: https://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/flsa

92.

The World Bank. Poverty and Hunger: Issues and Options for Food Security in Developing Countries [Internet]. Washington: The World Bank; c1986 [cited 2025 Dec 25]. Available from: https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/166331467990005748/pdf/multi-page.pdf

93.

Feed the Future [@FeedtheFuture] (2011 Dec) U. S. government initiative addressing the root causes of global hunger & poverty to improve #foodsecurity & #nutrition around the world [X]. [cited 2024 Dec 29]. Available from: https://x.com/feedthefuture?lang=en

94.

Agriculture’s Greatest Ally [Internet]. CIO Insider; c2025 [cited 2024 Dec 30] Available from: https://www.cioinsiderindia.com/agriculture-technology/july-2020-issue-special4-ZBE162863972.html

95.

Nelson GC, Rosegrant MW, Koo J, Robertson RD, Sulser T, Zhu T, et al. Climate change: Impact on agriculture and costs of adaptation [Internet]. LYRASIS; c2002–2025 [cited 2025 Feb 2]. Available from: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/fd552876-060f-40ea-8aea-3fbaf41b7cf1

96.

Beddington J, Asaduzzaman M, Clark M, Fernández A, Guillou M, Jahn M, et al. Achieving Food Security in the Face of Climate Change: Final Report from the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change [Internet]. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS); c2012 [cited 2025 Feb 1]. Available from: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c5a223d4-55ee-4bc2-bb59-6e9f895c7788/content

97.

Saikanth DRK, Supriya, Singh BV, Rai AK, Bana SR, Sachan DS, et al. Advancing sustainable agriculture: a comprehensive review for optimizing food production and environmental conservation. Int J Plant Soil Sci. 2023;35:417–25. [DOI]

98.

Torres G. Theoretical Problems with the Environmental Regulation of Agriculture. a J Nat Resources L. 1988;8:191.

99.

Agboklou KE, Özkan B, Gujrati R. Challenges to achieving zero hunger by 2030: the impact of armed conflict on global food security with a focus on the Russo-Ukrainian War. J Lifestyle SDG’S Rev. 2024;4. [DOI]

100.

Rachid M. Sustainable agriculture for food and nutritional security. Sustainable Agric Environ. 2023:25–90. [DOI]

101.

Carvalho FP. Agriculture, pesticides, food security and food safety. Enviro sci policy. 2006;9:685–92. [DOI]

102.

Wang D, Saleh NB, Byro A, Zepp R, Sahle-Demessie E, Luxton TP, et al. Nano-enabled pesticides for sustainable agriculture and global food security. Nat Nanotechnol. 2022;17:347–60. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

103.

Premanandh J. Factors affecting food security and contribution of modern technologies in food sustainability. J Sci Food Agric. 2011;91:2707–14. [DOI] [PubMed]

104.

Govender L, Pillay K, Derera J, Siwela M. Acceptance of a complementary food prepared with yellow, provitamin A-biofortified maize by black caregivers in rural KwaZulu-Natal. S Afr J Clin Nutr. 2014;27:2017–21.

105.

Li S, Ang SY, Hunter AM, Erdem S, Bostock J, Da CT, et al. Building Towards One Health: A Transdisciplinary Autoethnographic Approach to Understanding Perceptions of Sustainable Aquatic Foods in Vietnam. Sustainability. 2024;16:10865. [DOI]

106.

Xia L, Robock A, Scherrer K, Harrison CS, Bodirsky BL, Weindl I, et al. Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection. Nat Food. 2022;3:586–96. [DOI] [PubMed]

107.

Akintuyi OB. AI in agriculture: A comparative review of developments in the USA and Africa. Res J Sci Eng. 2024;10:60–70. [DOI]

108.

Farooq M, Rehman A, Pisante M. Sustainable agriculture and food security. In: Farooq M, Pisante M, editors. Innovations in sustainable agriculture. Cham: Springer; 2019. pp. 3–24.

109.

Morchid A, El Alami R, Raezah AA, Sabbar Y. Applications of internet of things (IoT) and sensors technology to increase food security and agricultural Sustainability: Benefits and challenges. Ain Shams Eng J. 2023;15:102509. [DOI]

110.

Oppenheimer C. Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815. Prog Phys Geogr. 2003;27:230–59. [DOI]

111.

Post JD. The Last Great Subsistence Crisis in the Western World. Med Hist. 1978;22:218–9. [PMC]

112.

Jägermeyr J, Robock A, Elliott J, Müller C, Xia L, Khabarov N, et al. A regional nuclear conflict would compromise global food security. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117:7071–81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

113.

Robock A, Oman L, Stenchikov GL. Nuclear winter revisited with a modern climate model and current nuclear arsenals: Still catastrophic consequences. J Geophys Res: Atmos. 2007;112. [DOI]

114.

Toon OB, Bardeen CG, Robock A, Xia L, Kristensen H, McKinzie M, et al. Rapidly expanding nuclear arsenals in Pakistan and India portend regional and global catastrophe. Sci Adv. 2019;5:eaay5478. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

115.

EU (European Union). Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 30]. Available from: https://www.eea.europa.eu/policy-documents/directive-2000-60-ec-of

116.

EC (European Union). Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 February 2005 on maximum residue levels of pesticides in or on food and feed of plant and animal origin and amending Council Directive 91/414/EEC Text with EEA relevance [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 24]. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2005/396/oj/eng

117.

Kitaoka K. The national school meal program in brazil: a literature review. J Nutr Diet. 2018;76:S115–25. [DOI]

118.

FAO. FAO Knowledge Repository BETA [Internet]. c2025 [cited 2025 Mar 2]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/i7175e/i7175e.pdf

119.

GI (Government of India). Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare [Internet]. [cited 2024 Nov 29]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Farmers%27_Welfare

120.

National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency [Internet]. National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency (NRIDA); c2023 [cited 2025 Jan 15]. Available from: https://pmgsy.nic.in/

121.

GK (Government of Kenya). The National Land Policy in Kenya Must Address Natural Resources [Internet]. [cited 2025 Mar 11]. Available from: https://kenyalandalliance.or.ke/login/publications/images/kla_land_update_newsletter_3_3.pdf

122.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The state of agricultural commodity markets 2018: Agricultural trade, climate change and food security. State Agric Commod Mark. 2018:109. [DOI]

123.

G20 bali leaders’ declaration [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 29]. Available from: https://g20.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/2022-11-16-g20-declaration-data.pdf

124.

Proceedings of the international symposium on agricultural innovation for family farmers - Unlocking the potential of agricultural innovation to achieve the sustainable development goals [Internet]. FAO; c2025 [cited 2025 Mar 5]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/ca4781en/CA4781EN.pdf

125.

FDA. Food [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 22]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/food

126.

Gitz V, Meybeck a. Climate change and food security: risks and responses [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 18]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5188e.pdf

127.

Gava O, Fabio B, Francesca V, Gianluca B, Alberto P. Improving policy evidence base for agricultural sustainability and food security: A content analysis of life cycle assessment research. Sustainability. 2020;12:1033. [DOI]

128.

Devaux A, Goffart JP, Petsakos A, Kromann P, Gatto M, Okello J, et al. Global food security, contributions from sustainable potato agri-food systems. In: Campos H, Ortiz O, editors. The Potato Crop. Springer: Cham; 2020. pp. 3–35.

129.

The Silent Revolution in Agriculture: How Farming Is Evolving Faster Than Ever? [Internet]. Insider Market Research; c2025 [cited 2025 Mar 2]. Available from: https://insidermarketresearch.com/revolution-in-agriculture/

130.

Taylor EM, Smith J. Product Development Partnerships: Delivering Innovation for the Elimination of African Trypanosomiasis? Trop Med Infect Dis. 2020;5:11. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

131.

Wang X, Ma L, Yan S, Chen X, Growe A. Trade for Food Security: The Stability of Global Agricultural Trade Networks. Foods. 2023;12:271. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]