Table Info

Table 1.

Detailed epigenetic mechanisms linking pregnancy complications to CVD in offspring

Epigenetic mechanism	Pregnancy complications	Key genes/pathways affected	Potential cardiovascular outcomes in offspring	References
DNA methylation	Preeclampsia	ACE, AGTR1, IL-6, PPAR	Hypertension, dyslipidemia, chronic inflammation	[7]
DNA methylation	GDM	INS, PPARGC1A, ADIPOQ	Metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, atherosclerosis	[8]
DNA methylation	IUGR	VEGF, NOS3, HIF1A	Increased vascular stiffness, hypertension, atherosclerosis	[9]
Histone modifications	Preeclampsia	H3K27me3 (polycomb repressive complex 2), H4K8ac	Altered gene expression in vascular development, increased risk of hypertension	[10]
Histone modifications	IUGR	H3K9me3, H4K20me3	Vascular dysfunction increases cardiovascular risk	[11]
Non-coding RNAs (miRNAs)	GDM	miR-29, miR-143, miR-155	Increased risk of insulin resistance, atherosclerosis, hypertension	[12]
Non-coding RNAs (miRNAs)	Preeclampsia	miR-210, miR-126, miR-155	Increased cardiovascular risk, endothelial dysfunction	[13]
Chromatin remodeling	Preeclampsia, IUGR	SMARCA4, CHD4, BRG1	Altered gene expression in cardiovascular development, increased risk of CVDs	[14]
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs)	GDM, IUGR	H19, MEG3, XIST	Altered metabolic regulation, increased risk of CVDs	[15]
RNA editing	GDM, IUGR	ADARB1, ADARB2, APOBEC1	Altered RNA processing, increased cardiovascular risk	[16]

GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; IUGR: intrauterine growth restriction; ACE: angiotensin-converting enzyme; AGTR1: angiotensin II receptor type 1; PPAR: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor; INS: insulin; ADIPOQ: adiponectin; PPARGC1A: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, coactivator 1 alpha; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; NOS3: nitric oxide synthase 3, endothelial; HIF1A: hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha subunit; SMARCA4: SWI/SNF related, matrix associated, actin dependent regulator of chromatin, subfamily a, member 4; CHD4: chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 4; BRG1: brahma-related gene 1; MEG3: maternally expressed gene 3; XIST: X-inactive specific transcript; ADARB1: adenosine deaminase RNA-specific B1; APOBEC1: apolipoprotein b editing catalytic subunit; CVD: cardiovascular disease

Declarations

Author contributions

KRT: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision. IB: Writing—review & editing. MWA: Formal analysis, Writing—review & editing.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

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Copyright

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