Alteration of microbial diversity

↑ F/B ratio

Associated with long term consumption of LC

Growth of TMA producing bacteria

↑ F/B ratio and TMAO level

Contributes to systemic inflammation, impairment of gut barrier function, triggering pro-inflammatory conditions

Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Bacteroides spp., and Clostridium spp., produce beneficial SCFAs like acetate, propionate, and butyrate

Essential for maintaining intestinal health, controlling immune responses, reducing inflammation, and protecting the intestinal barrier

Particularly butyrate, produced by species like Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, are vital for gut epithelial integrity, reducing inflammation and supporting immune function

Acetate and propionate, produced by Bacteroides species, also have immune-modulatory effects, promoting a balanced gut environment

Conversion of LC into TMA and subsequently TMAO can lead to oxidative stress and inflammation, which may counteract the benefits of LC

↑ TMAO levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk and may negatively affect metabolic health by triggering systemic inflammation

LC plays a crucial role in fatty acid metabolism by transporting long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria, where they undergo β-oxidation to produce acetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoA is a key substrate in the citric acid cycle, which generates ATP, providing energy for cellular activities

LC aids in the metabolism of BCAAs such as leucine, isoleucine, and valine

It helps transaminate these amino acids, converting them into keto acids for efficient energy generation

Enhances mitochondrial biogenesis, reduces oxidative stress, and supports cellular metabolism

LC’s impact on gut microbiota and metabolic pathways is complex, as it can have both beneficial and detrimental effects

While LC helps with fatty acid oxidation, energy production, and SCFA generation, its conversion to TMAO can exacerbate inflammation and oxidative stress, highlighting the importance of a balanced microbiota for optimal health

While short term consumption shows benefits, long term consumption is linked to adverse cardiovascular complications