Table Info

Table 4.

Summary of interventions to reduce the levels of TMAO

Intervention	Efficacy	Population
Plant-based diets (e.g., Mediterranean)	Reduces TMAO by promoting beneficial gut bacteria	General population, those with cardiovascular/metabolic issues
High-fiber diet	Reduces TMA-producing bacteria	General population, those with metabolic/gut health issues
Reduced red meat consumption	Lowers TMAO by reducing LC and choline	Those with cardiovascular/metabolic diseases
Seafood	Increases TMAO levels; should be avoided for TMAO reduction	General population, those looking to lower TMAO
Legumes, soy, quinoa, fermented foods	Decreases TMAO by promoting beneficial bacteria	General population, those with metabolic/cardiovascular concerns
Probiotics	Suppresses TMA-producing bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium)	Those with high TMAO or gut dysbiosis
Prebiotics	Promotes growth of TMA-independent bacteria	Those with gut health issues
Exercise (endurance/aerobic)	Increases microbial diversity, reduces TMA-producing bacteria	General population, those with cardiovascular/metabolic issues
Antibiotics (rifaximin & metronidazole)	Reduces TMAO by targeting TMA-producing bacteria	Short-term use for those with high TMAO levels
Omega-3 supplements	Can help reduce TMAO levels	Those aiming to lower TMAO or improve metabolic health
Choline/LC-lowering drugs	May reduce TMAO levels	Those with elevated TMAO due to diet or metabolism

LC: L-carnitine; TMA: trimethylamine; TMAO: trimethylamine-N-oxide

Declarations

Author contributions

HSW: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Supervision, Validation. FR: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. AWI: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. JAK: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. AAS: Writing—original draft.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

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