Table Info

Table 1.

Summary of common scaffolding materials for bone tissue engineering. The main advantages and disadvantages are presented with examples for each material. Adapted from Ref. [37] with permission from Springer Nature, © 2025 Springer Nature

Material Type	Main Advantages	Main Disadvantages	Examples	Refs
Natural polymers	Biomimetic; some contain cell-adhesion sites; low cost	Low mechanical properties (for example, stiffness); potential immunogenicity; batch-to-batch variability	Collagen or gelatin Silk Alginate	[118–120] [121–123] [124–127]
Synthetic polymers	Wide range of compositions and properties; ease of modification	Some produce undesirable or acidic degradation products	Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) Poly(propylene fumarate) Poly(ɛ-caprolactone)	[124, 128, 129] [130–132] [130, 133–135]
Bioceramics	High compressive modulus; capable of delivering bioactive ions	Brittleness	Hydroxyapatite β-Tricalcium phosphate Bioactive glasses (such as 45S5 composition)	[129, 133, 136, 137] [128, 138–140] [118, 141–143]
Biodegradable metals	High compressive strength	High corrosion rate; require high-temperature processing	Magnesium and its alloys	[144, 145]
Carbon-based nanomaterials	High tensile strength; ease of functionalization using surface groups	Limited biodegradability; potential cytotoxicity	Carbon nanotubes Graphene or graphene oxide	[146, 147] [148–152]

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of the CIHR and NSERC Collaborative Health Research Program, as well as the Canada Research Chair – Tier 1 in Regenerative Medicine and Nanomedicine, and the FRQS funding. However, the funders had no role in study design, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Schematic figures were made using a paid subscription to the Biorender Software and graphs were created using Microsoft Excel.

Author contributions

CJA: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Visualization. BMW: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. ARB: Writing—review & editing. MT: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review & editing, Supervision.

Conflicts of interest

Maryam Tabrizian is Editor-in-Chief of Exploration of BioMat-X, and Aldo Roberto Boccaccini is an Associate Editor of the journal. They were not involved in the decision-making or the review process of this manuscript. The remaining authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

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