As an integral part of human chronobiology, the circadian system plays a crucial role in regulating key biological functions, including sleep and the intricate hormonal rhythms of melatonin (MLT) and cortisol (CORT). Scholars have increasingly recognized environmental stressors as significant contributors to disturbed sleep patterns. Albeit vigorously discussed individually, the literature lacks comprehensive insights into the synergistic effect of artificial light at night (ALAN) and noise. The aim of this review is to look into the intricate interplay of the ALAN effects on sleep architecture, the modulation of circadian function, and how this influences homeostatic sleep. Furthermore, ALAN suppresses MLT secretion, which is most pronounced in response to short wavelengths of light. In addition, this review will demonstrate how exposure to noise during sleep elevates CORT and noradrenaline levels, which contributes to stress-related diseases and sleep disturbances. ALAN and noise, persistently emitted into the environment, share intrinsic mechanisms with comparable characteristics. Therefore, understanding their combined impact has become increasingly urgent. Pre-sleep exposure to both ALAN and noise acts as a potent stressor, with the potential to disrupt sleep patterns. Interestingly, during sleep, noise emerges as the predominant influence on sleep quality. Moreover, these stressors often synergize and amplify one another’s adverse effects. Thus, limiting their exposure is crucial for cultivating a sustainable environment conducive to quality sleep and overall well-being.

There is a complex relationship between circadian rhythm dysfunctions and various psychiatric disorders. Circadian (~24 h) rhythms indicate the rhythmic change of different physiological activities in relation to the environmental light-dark cycle. Shift work, light exposure at night, and chronic and acute jet lag affect circadian rhythm that have a negative impact on psychological functions, and behaviors. Additionally, professional stress, mental instability, and social disintegration influence psychiatric disorders. PubMed/MEDLINE, Springer Nature, Science Direct (Elsevier), Wiley Online, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar databases were searched to collect relevant articles. Circadian rhythm disruption causes impaired neurotransmitter release, impaired melatonin and cortisol rhythm, metabolic dysfunctions, neuroinflammation, and neural apoptosis; collectively these factors influence the development of psychiatric disorders. Circadian dysfunction also alters the expression of several clock control genes in the mesolimbic areas that are associated with pathologies of psychiatric disorders. Additionally, chronotherapy and applications of anti-psychotic medicine can improve psychiatric diseases. This review focuses on the effects of circadian clock dysfunction on the vulnerability of psychiatric disorders and the implications of chronotherapy.

The ubiquity of circadian rhythms in living organisms has generally been accepted by researchers over the last century. Indeed, morphology and molecular biology of the circadian clock were described during the last fifty years. This main biological clock is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. This nucleus is connected with the retina by the retinohypothalamic tract. This way, light regulates the functioning of the biological clock and biological rhythms such as the sleep-wake cycle and other cyclic functions by releasing melatonin from the pineal body (PB) into the general circulation. Melatonin reaches the retina via the bloodstream as humoral feedback. More than a hundred years ago a reverse neuronal connection between the central nervous system and the retina was hypothesized. This so-called centrifugal visual or retinopetal system has been explored in detail in birds, but less information is available in mammals. In this work, the morphology and physiology of mammalian centrifugal visual pathways are reviewed. It is generally accepted that the centrifugal (retinopetal) fibers terminate mainly on the amacrine cells of the retina. Histaminergic fibers terminate on dopaminergic amacrine cells. Serotoninergic synapses were identified on ganglion cells. In addition, serotoninergic fibers were also associated with photoreceptor terminals. Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone fibers have been observed in birds, but not in mammalian retinas. In summary, based on the data available in the literature, it seems that the retinopetal system has a mandatory role in lower vertebrates, but a modulatory role in mammals. There is currently no adequate way to eliminate the centrifugal visual system that would better explain its true function.

The circadian rhythm is a critical system that governs an organism’s functions in alignment with the light-dark cycle. Melatonin release from the pineal gland plays a crucial role in regulating the internal clock of the body. Multiple neurotransmitter systems in the central nervous system are linked to the release of melatonin. In this review, the relationship between circadian rhythm, melatonin secretion and various neurotransmitter systems are mainly discussed. Serotonin regulates the circadian rhythm through projections from raphe nuclei. Agomelatine is an example of the synergistic interaction between melatonin and serotonin. Melatonergic agents and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors also exert notable impacts on depression in concomitant use. Dopamine has an inhibitory effect on melatonin release, while melatonin also inhibits dopamine release. This should be taken into account when considering the use of melatonin in Parkinson’s disease. On the contrary, use of melatonin may offer therapeutic advantages for schizophrenia and tardive dyskinesia. The interaction between norepinephrine and melatonin exhibits diurnal variability, with norepinephrine promoting arousal and inhibiting daytime melatonin secretion. Melatonergic neurons also exert a specific protective influence on cholinergic neurons. Interaction between the histaminergic and melatonergic systems is significant, particularly in association with immunity, sleep, and circadian rhythm. Novel ligands with dual-acting properties, interacting with both the histaminergic and melatonergic systems are investigated. Currently, there is a limited number of approved melatonergic agents that primarily demonstrate positive effects in addressing insomnia and depression. However, there is considerable potential in studying new agents that target both the melatonergic and other neurotransmitter systems, which alleviate various conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases, dementia, autoimmune diseases, allergic diseases, epilepsy, and other neuropsychiatric disorders. The ongoing process of developing and evaluating new ligands selectively targeting the melatonergic system remains crucial in understanding the complex relationship between these systems.

Earth’s rotation generates the basic circadian rhythm of day and night to which all living organisms must adapt to survive. In mammals, this happens thanks to a central clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus and to peripheral clock genes at the cellular level. The main environmental cue capable of synchronizing such clocks is light sensed by retinal ganglion cells signaling through a complex nervous pathway to the pineal gland which ultimately regulates melatonin synthesis that occurs during the night, darkness hours in all mammals. The central clock synchronized by melatonin drives the circadian oscillation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) adrenergic activity which in turn controls glucocorticoid production in the adrenal glands. These oscillations are integrated with peripheral cellular clocks by still not completely understood mechanisms and drive the homeostatic control of activity-rest (sleep) cycles, cardiovascular activity, body temperature, and immune-hematopoietic functions. The neuronal and hormonal mechanisms governing the circadian oscillation of hematopoiesis and immunity will be addressed in this review focusing on those offering therapeutic perspectives.

All living organisms exhibit circadian rhythms. Humans show circadian rhythm of the different physiological functions such as sleep-wake cycle, core body temperature, feeding behavior, metabolic activity, heart rate variability, hormone secretion, and others. The hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) acts as a primary circadian pacemaker. Peripheral tissues have an endogenous circadian clock; however, SCN synchronizes the circadian activity of the peripheral clocks. The retinohypothalamic tract (RHT) from retinal ganglionic cells carries the photic signal into the SCN that regulates the rhythmic expression of the core clock genes through the feedback loop. At the output level, the SCN connects with the pineal gland and the peripheral tissues with the help of neuroendocrine mediators. Disruption of circadian clock functions is detrimental to health. Shift work, night work, chronic or acute jet lag, and light-at-night have adverse effects on circadian functions. Misalignment of circadian rhythm alters the expression of core clock genes, leading to deregulation of cellular activity and metabolic functions. Circadian rhythm dysfunction causes many pathologic conditions, including sleep disorders, cardiovascular problems, metabolic dysfunction, infertility, poor physical performance, as well as cancer. The present work has reviewed the relationship between circadian clock dysfunction and impaired physiological activities.