Analytical nanometrology in food science

Nanoscience and nanotechnology have emerged in recent years as a revolutionary tool in almost all fields of science, including food science. Nanomaterials (NMs), according to the European Union (EU) definition, are natural, incidental or manufactured material containing particles, in an unbound state or as an aggregate or as an agglomerate and where, for 50% or more of the particles in the number size distribution, one or more external dimensions is in the size range 1–100 nm [1]. NMs are present ubiquitously around us and they can pose risks to human or animal health, or harmful environmental effects. NMs are commonly used in food industry as food additives, food ingredients, and also as food contact materials. Some references illustrate the potential toxicity of NMs in humans [2, 3], and more recently the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Scientific Committee has reported a guidance of risk assessment of NMs to be applied in food and feed chain [4].

It is recognized that food ingredients that are generally considered as safe at the macro level may be not safe at the nanoscale. NMs, in particular can pass through cells and interfere with several subcellular mechanisms. The NMs can even penetrate into cell nuclei and affect the DNA, as it is reported in some references [5, 6]. Therefore, the detection of NMs in food products is essential. Analytical nanometrology (ANM, or metrology applied to NMs) deals with the application of the metrology at this size-level (nanoscale) [7].

Different analytical techniques, as outlined in Table 1 (including the abbreviation of each technique), are applied in the characterization of NMs in food to determine their size distribution, composition, structure, shape, surface, level of agglomeration, and concentration. The complete characterization is commonly impossible, but the studies must be addressed to those critical features depending on the intendent use. Microscopic techniques, such as SEM, TEM and STEM, give information about the size (size distribution), morphology, shape, and level of agglomeration; diffraction techniques (XRD, SERS mainly), and spectroscopic techniques (FTIR mainly) give information about the composition, structure and crystalline state. All these techniques need to be NMs (samples) in solid state, but in many cases NMs and samples are presented in solution (basically in aqueous solutions). In these cases, UV-vis and fluorescence spectroscopy can sometimes give information on size and concentration. Here, it is very important the role of DLS because inform about the size distribution in solution, it means the hydrodynamic size of NMs including the hydration sphere associated with the NM. Even more, information about the so-called zeta-potential. This is the voltage difference existing between the surface of the nanoparticle (NP) and the counter-ions strongly bound to this particle when it is moving in an electric field. NMs characterization is an important issue when they are going to be used for other applications or purposes (as it may be in food field as additives, preservatives, stabilizers, etc.), but not for nanometrological purposes such as identification and determination of NMs in specific food samples [7]. Here, the role of instrumental separation techniques and some spectrometric techniques are critical tools. Within instrumental separation techniques, hydrodynamic chromatography (HDC), SEC, CE, and more recently and important, field flow fractionation techniques (FFF) have been employed, especially when these techniques are hyphenated to the wide variety of mass spectrometer detectors. Today, ICP-MS has emerged as a definitive technique for NMs detection/determination, with many advantageous possibilities, particularly in the “single-particle” mode (sp-ICP-MS). The sp-ICP-MS allows to measure individual inorganic NPs, with differentiation between ionic and particulate signal without any prior separation, which is very sensitive and permits to give element specific information including particle concentration and size distribution. Some examples in food field of the use of sp-ICP-MS can be illustrative [8, 9], and a general overview was recently reported by Villamayor et al. [10].

In spite of the importance and rise of analysis of NMs in food, challenges exist for a comprehensive and complete analysis of samples containing NMs. Below are some of bottlenecks to end users (routine/control analytical laboratories):

• 1)

  Identification of real problems and situations where nanocomponents may be found in specific samples.

• 2)

  Sample treatment assuring the integrity of the nanocomponents.

• 3)

  Development of screening systems for a rapid response (e.g., the development of sensing platforms is a crucial need).

• 4)

  Need of reliable standards for key activities assuring the traceability and the reliability of the results for calibration and certified reference materials for method validation.

• 5)

  Need of quality assurance programs to harmonize analytical methodologies for NMs in specific samples.

Finally, it is important to note that the analysis of inorganic and organic NMs requires different analytical strategies. ANM for inorganic NMs is more advanced (e.g., ICP-MS and sp-ICP-MS, etc.) since more attention has been paid to this type of NMs. ANM for organic NMs (very important in the food field) needs further developments [probably with different modalities of liquid chromatography, CE and FFF in combination with mass spectrometry (MS) and MS/MS]. Thus, the term nanostructured organic materials (NOMs) have been used to include nanoemulsions (NEs), nanoliposomes (NLs), solid lipidic NPs (SLNs), and nanostructured lipidic carriers (NLCs), and here the analytical control of nanodelivery lipid-base systems for encapsulation of nutraceutical compounds presents some achievements, but many challenges today in the general framework of the ANM [28]. Examples such as curcumin/nanocurcumin [29], quercetin/encapsulated nano-quercetin [30], and nanoencapsulated vitamin D₃ [31] are good proofs of the different analytical strategies with respect to those followed by inorganic NMs.

Analytical nanotechnology and nanoscience in food science

Analytical chemistry plays a crucial role in food science and food industry, involving both food quality and safety control. After integration with nanotechnology and nanoscience, this new branch, called analytical nanotechnology (ANT) was gradually established in the first decade of this century [32]. ANT is seemingly beginning to mature now as it is indicated by the significantly increased exploration of ANT methods and their application to food science and food industry.

The use of nano-liquid chromatography in food analysis

Nano-liquid chromatography (nano-LC) is a microfluidic technique mainly used for analytical purposes. It has gained interest in the research and application fields because its features are alternative/complementary to HPLC. The compounds’ separation is performed in capillaries of low internal dimensions (10–100 μm I.D.) containing a selected stationary phase under a flow rate of 10–700 nL/min. The low flow rate 1) reduces the analytes dispersion offering high mass sensitivity, 2) makes the technique eco-friendly, and 3) allows a perfect coupling with MS. The stationary phases used in HPLC have been employed in nano-LC with its different modes, namely packed (mainly based on silica-modified particles) or in monolithic material, and bonded/adsorbed on the capillary wall [open tubular (OT)-nano-LC].

Nano-LC has been successfully applied for the separation and analysis of compounds studied in different areas, e.g., proteomics, pharmaceutical, agrochemical, environment, biomedicine, food chemistry, etc. The applicability of nano-LC in the field of separation science has been documented by some review articles where the main features and applications have been reported [118, 120–127].

Some examples document the practical applicability of nano-LC to food analysis. For instance, the analysis of some amino acids enantiomers has been performed after derivatization with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) in fruit juice with OT-nano-LC where β-cyclodextrin and FITC were the chiral selectors [128], while D’Orazio et al. [129] analyzed amino acid enantiomers after derivatization with FITC in orange fruit juice using a capillary column packed with RP₁₈ stationary phase. In both examples, an indirect method was applied. Amino acid enantiomers were also separated by nano-LC and capillary electrochromatography (CEC). Analytes were derivatized with FITC and separated in a capillary column containing silica particles with coated polysaccharides [cellulose tris(3-chloro-4-methylphenylcarbamate)]. The content of citrulline in a dietary supplement was measured by CEC [130]. The analysis of 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol, 3-mercaptohexylacetate, and their corresponding disulfides in wine was reported providing partial information on the wine aroma evolution [131]. Compounds, after derivatization with N-ethylmaleimide or N-phenylmaleimide were analyzed with a nano-LC-MS-MS in the presence of an RP₁₈ stationary phase. Caffeine and riboflavin were separated and analyzed in dietary supplements by nano-LC using a column (150 mm × 100 μm I.D.) packed with Zorbax 300SB C₁₈ (3.5 μm particle size) [132]. Another interesting application includes the analysis of oligosaccharides in goat colostrum employing a nano-LC-Chip–Q-TOF MS; the chip (analytical column) was packed with graphitized carbon [133]. Although the good results achieved by nano-LC and the features of this technique, some potential hurdles still need to be overcome, e.g., only a few types of capillary columns are commercially available. This problem can be resolved by preparing the columns in the own laboratory, however, it requires experience and ability.

Microplastics and nanoplastics: analysis of their impact on food production and quality

With the continuous advancement of global industrialization and urbanization, plastic pollution has become an environmental issue that cannot be ignored [134, 135]. In particular, the widespread presence of microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) poses a serious threat to the environment and the health of living organisms. Due to their small particle size, MNPs can easily spread through environmental media and food chains, thereby potentially impacting the environment and human health [136]. These tiny plastic particles are now ubiquitous, having even invaded the human body. People are continuously exposed to these MNPs through food and beverage consumption, air inhalation, and cosmetics, which may pose potential health risks [137, 138]. Figure 2 shows an overview of sources of microplastics, pathways of degradation and human exposure routes and consequences, as described by Mamun et al., 2023 [137]. However, research on the impact of MNPs on food production and quality is still insufficient at present, lacking systematic analysis and evaluation. This has led to a limited understanding of the role and impact of these tiny plastic particles in food production and quality. Therefore, conducting relevant research is of great significance for formulating corresponding management and control measures, ensuring food safety, and promoting sustainable development.

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Figure 2. 

Overview of sources of microplastics, pathways of degradation and human exposure routes and consequences (reproduced with permission from Mamun et al. [137], Science of the Total Environment, 2023, 858, 159834; Figure 3; © 2022 Elsevier B.V.)

Contamination of foods with plant toxins

While food safety and public health are major concerns, toxins from plants have been identified as one of the key risks. These harmful substances can become part of the human diet in two ways, either through consumption of poisonous plants or indirectly via food contamination. Therefore, it is important to expand the knowledge on the different plant toxins, their effects, and how to mitigate them, so the safety and quality of the food supply can be guaranteed.

Plant toxins can be divided into several classes based on their chemical structure and their effect on human health. Some of the plant toxins are mycotoxins, alkaloids, oxalates, cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates and lectins.

Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing compounds that can have major effects on the nervous system. Some examples of common toxic alkaloids are glycoalkaloids such as solanine in potatoes [162] and tomatine in tomatoes [163]. High levels of solanine can cause symptoms ranging from nausea and vomiting to more severe neurological disturbances. Solanine nor tomatine has maximum limits (MLs) according to the legislation in force at EU. Tropane alkaloids (TAs) [164, 165] and pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) have MLs according to EU legislation. TAs are naturally occurring compounds that serve as secondary metabolites in numerous plant species, particularly abundant in the Solanaceae family. More than 200 distinct TAs are synthesized by plants as a protective strategy against herbivores, pathogens, and competing vegetation. Methods to determine TAs (atropine, scopolamine, anisodamine, and homatropine) have been optimized and validated including QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe) extraction followed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography combined with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ToF-MS) in the dried product of herbal infusions and in buckwheat and buckwheat products [166, 167]. PAs are a group of natural compounds found in several plant families, notably Boraginaceae, Asteraceae, and Fabaceae. These compounds are produced by plants as a defense mechanism against herbivores and are generally determined by LC-MS [168]. PAs pose significant health risks, primarily through liver damage, carcinogenicity, and genetic mutations. Chronic exposure can also lead to conditions such as pulmonary veno-occlusive disease (pulmonary hypertension), and reproductive toxicity [168].

Some glycosidic compounds, when hydrolyzed, produce substances associated with negative human health effects. This is the case of cyanogenic glycosides, found in cassava and almonds, that release cyanide when metabolized, posing a serious risk of poisoning if not properly processed. Hydrocyanic acid, including cyanogenic glycosides, has also defined MLs according to the EU legislation [169]. Cyanogenic glycosides such as lotaustralin, prunasin, taxiphyllin, and dhurrin have been determined using LC-MS/MS. Park et al. [170] identified the major dietary exposure sources and proposed the development of a preliminary risk assessment framework based on the dietary exposure assessment and the calculation of theoretical levels of hydrocyanic acid derived from cyanogenic glycoside concentrations. This is quite relevant in order to establish, in the near future, guidelines for the permissible intake of foods containing cyanogenic glycosides [170].

Other plant toxins are lectins, frequently found in beans and legumes. These compounds can interfere with nutrient absorption, namely protein, and cause gastrointestinal issues. Raw or undercooked kidney beans are particularly high in lectins, which can cause severe digestive disorders. However, these compounds are associated with plant defense, therefore lectin genes could be used for designing strategies for multigene transfer to generate resistance in susceptible crops [171]. Moreover, their utilization as potential antimicrobial agents for drug development and drug therapies has also been well reported [171].

Oxalates are other class of compounds found in plants that can have toxic effects in humans. They are present in foods like spinach and rhubarb. Physiologically, these compounds can bind to calcium, forming insoluble crystals that can lead to kidney stones and other health issues. Methods used to determine oxalate include electrochemical detection, LC-MS or GC-MS, enzymatic degradation of oxalate with oxalate oxidase and detection of hydrogen peroxide produced, and indicator displacement-based methods employing fluorescent or UV light-absorbing compounds [172].

Mycotoxins are fungal toxins that are found in crops. These compounds can contaminate plant-based foods like cereal grains and nuts [173, 174]. Aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus species, are among the most potent carcinogens that can contaminate crops like peanuts and corn. EU legislation has established MLs for mycotoxins in diverse food products, however there are still many mycotoxins that do not have a maximum residue limit defined in food [169].

Despite their various health benefits, excessive or exclusive consumption of vegetables and seeds from the Brassicaceae family has been associated with several adverse health effects due to their high levels of glucosinolates. These include altered thyroid function and an increased risk of thyroid disorders, besides liver and kidney malfunction. These effects can also impair growth, reproductive performance, and may even be fatal. During chewing, the enzyme myrosinase converts glucosinolates into breakdown products such as thiocyanates and isothiocyanates, which have been associated to harmful impacts on human health [175].

Plant toxins can get into human food via various pathways, namely through 1) direct ingestion of toxic plants: for example, when cassava is improperly prepared it can cause cyanide poisoning; 2) post-harvest management: for instance, poor storage conditions such as improper drying and storage of crops can allow the growth of mycotoxins producing fungi; 3) processing and cooking: some cooking processes can decrease levels of plant toxins [175]; this is the case of boiling beans that reduces lectin content, making them safe for eating.

The health effects of plant toxins can vary widely depending on the type and amount of toxin consumed. Acute poisoning can result in immediate symptoms such as vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, and neurological symptoms. For example, chronic exposure to aflatoxins is a major risk factor for liver cancer, particularly in regions where staple foods like maize and peanuts are prone to contamination. Chronic exposure to lower levels of toxins can lead to long-term health issues, including liver and kidney injuries, cancer, and growth-related disorders. Long-term consumption of foods high in oxalates can contribute to the formation of kidney stones and other renal complications.

The guarantee of food safety involves a multi-faceted approach to managing plant toxins [176]. In this line, several strategies can be adopted to mitigate plant toxins. These include: 1) to develop plant varieties with lower toxin levels through traditional breeding or genetic engineering to reduce the risk of poisoning [177]; for example, cassava varieties with lower cyanogenic glycoside content have been developed; 2) to implement Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) to minimize contamination from non-edible crops to edible crops [178, 179]; 3) to carry out proper drying, storage, and handling of crops to prevent the growth of mycotoxin-producing fungi; this includes the use of appropriate storage facilities and monitoring moisture levels; 4) regular testing with suitable analytical methods and enforcement of regulations to ensure that contaminated products do not reach consumers; therefore, it is important that governments and regulatory bodies set up safety standards and monitor food products for plant toxins; 5) education of consumers about the risks associated with plant toxins and safe food preparation practices can significantly reduce the incidents with these compounds. Public health campaigns and educational programs are essential components of a comprehensive food safety strategy. This includes the education of consumers and food processors regarding safe preparation methods to reduce toxin levels in foods. For instance, soaking and boiling beans effectively reduces lectin content, making them safe for consumption.

Summing up, knowing the sources of plant toxins, together with their mitigation measures and effects, helps enhancing the quality and, consequently, the safety of foods. Further studying and innovating around plant breeding, agricultural practices, reliable analytical methods and processing will be very effective in addressing the risks of plant toxins. Moreover, creating consciousness among consumers regarding its safety can successfully reduce the effect of these natural compounds on public health.

Determination of organic contaminants in food safety and authenticity based on target and non-target MS and NMR methodologies

Mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy are among the main analytical techniques employed for targeted and untargeted studies in food science. Both techniques have advantages and limitations and in recent years are often used as complementary approaches to obtain the greatest amount of information on foods. This section discusses these two methodologies to determine organic contaminants in food, highlighting some distinctive aspects of their use for food authentication.

Organic contaminants in food have been mostly determined using liquid or gas chromatography coupled with MS (LC-MS or GC-MS) [180]. Representative legacy and emerging contaminants (ECs) are pesticides, veterinary drug residues, mycotoxins, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), other brominated flame retardants (BFRs), organophosphate esters (OPEs), short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), microplastics, and so on [181]. Tandem quadrupole-MS employing multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) is a sensitive targeted method that plays an important role in detecting and quantifying organic contaminants commonly present at low concentrations [182]. High-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has opened new perspectives in food contaminant analysis [183]. HRMS has changed the traditional analysis concept as it allows untargeted analysis (i.e., able to detect an unlimited number of known and unknown compounds, at least in theory) [184].

Biosensors for food authenticity assessment

Although the role of biosensors in the food sector has embraced different fields, e.g., pathogen sensing and GMO detection, the food authenticity field is still in an embryonic phase. Food authenticity can hold several dimensions, considering geographical origin, food composition and processing, that need to comply with what is provided to the consumer. Moreover, the main target of food adulteration is focused in high-value market products, such as wine, olive oil, animal products, among others. Most of these are based on the use of a specific cultivars/variety (plant species) or breed (animal species), which can be more easily identified using DNA-based markers, since these are not influenced by external conditions and remain stable throughout the food chain [197, 198].

Biosensors have gained attention in this field, especially due to their general interesting features: high sensitivity, reliability, portability, cost-effectiveness, and rapid response [199]. So, by using biomolecules, such as DNA, as a biorecognition element, numerous configurations can be designed targeting a given cultivar/variety/breed. Additionally, the fact that smaller targets may be used can help to overcome the limitations imposed by the high DNA degradation verified in highly-processed food products [200].

Even so, there is still a huge gap between the development of biosensing devices for other food applications and for food authenticity, mostly because of the difficulty of handling complex foods. When DNA extraction is required for a specific analysis, the use of efficient and quick DNA extraction protocols is imperative. Some research has been concentrated in designing devices that can select DNA, from such complex samples, through microfluidic approaches. Nevertheless, this requires sample preparation steps, that can increase detection time and costs. Thus, the search for direct sampling approaches is preferred.

Additionally, the biosensors’ analytical performance, considering quality and reliability of the obtained results, has been looked into. Through the use of new NMs, which are mainly used to modify the surface of the transducers, an increase in parameters, such as, sensitivity, selectivity, limit of detection (LOD), and limit of quantification (LOQ), can be improved, being considered nowadays a hot topic in this line of research [198, 201].

Most of the biosensors reported for authenticity purposes have been concentrated in animal species identification, either in meat samples or in derived processed products [198]. Some reports have been based on plant product e.g., authenticity along the wine chain (leaf, must and wine samples [197]), olive oil adulterant [202] and identification of species present in flours [203]. The determination of gluten in flours is relevant when dealing with celiac patients. Other food products are not so well studied, and would benefit from such a strategy, as the economic implication of fraudulent practices are substantial. The existence of more genomic information at affordable prices, gives way to a wider application of DNA-based methods for authenticity purposes. More, the progress observed in other technological fields, such as the development of new nanomaterials and technological solutions, can help to boost the development of biosensing devices that will be easier to use at a more affordable price, surpassing some of the still existent constrains.

New trends in foodomics for food authentication

The main objective of food analysis has always been food safety, but over time, factors pertaining to food quality, food traceability, food authenticity and processing have steadily grown in significance. The last decade researchers are moving from traditional procedures, which are characterized by targeting a small number of analytes and moderate analytical performance, to advanced methodologies that apply the most recent developments in food science as a result of rapid evolution of analytical instruments and techniques. Foodomics is a term that refers to a new discipline that studies the Food and Nutrition domains through the application and integration of advanced -omics technologies to improve consumer’s well-being, health, and knowledge. Foodomics technologies are highly useful for identifying the similarities and differences between food products and for determining the food fingerprint, which is a marker of food authenticity and quality [204–206]. This section offers a critical discussion of the most current advancements in foodomics technologies and chemometric approaches that are applied in this field.

Novel processing technologies

Emerging food processing technologies, such as microwave heating, ohmic heating, moderate electric field, pulsed electric fields, cold plasma, high-pressure processing, and ultrasound, are poised to revolutionize future trends in Food Science and Foodomics. For example, ohmic heating has been proposed for sustainable green extraction that could provide sustainably high-quality extracts [228] and enriched with valuable bioactive compounds that could improve consumer’s well-being and health. Another example is the recently developed moderate electric field [229] to pasteurize milk (and potentially other liquid foods) at relatively low temperatures that extend the shelf-life with reduced environmental impact in terms of emitted carbon dioxide. Similarly, sonication improves bioactive compound extraction, extends perishable foods’ shelf life, and valorizes food waste [230]. These technologies can also assist bioprocesses such as fermentation [231]. Accordingly, industrial application of such novel food processing could produce novel ingredients and enhance the nutritional profile of foods. In foodomics, these technologies enable comprehensive profiling of food components, revealing insights into nutritional content and bioavailability. Food production based on such technologies could facilitate identifying and quantifying bioactive compounds, resulting in the development of functional foods designed for specific health benefits. These technologies collectively enhance food safety, quality, and sustainability, aligning with consumer demands for high-quality and safe foods. These could eventually facilitate the development of foods with targeted health benefits and advance the scientific information on the complex relationship between diet and health through foodomics.

Green extraction techniques and encapsulation strategies of bioactive compounds from food by-products

Effect of food processing on the food microbiota

Food processing encompasses a wide range of techniques and methods applied to raw ingredients with the primary aim of improving food safety and convenience, shelf-life, and organoleptic properties. Food processing can generally be considered beneficial [242] by promoting the inactivation of food-borne pathogens or natural toxins, extending the shelf-life, or improving the digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients. It is expected that food processing has the minimum interference or improves the product’s palatability, taste, texture, and flavor of the product. It may also impart improved functional properties to the product. The impact of food processing on food microbiota is expected, since some of the technologies aim a microbiological control, and may affect not only the safety but also the microbial ecology of food.

In the era of the -omics tools, it is important to understand the impact of food processing on food bacterial communities, beyond the bacterial indicators of food safety. The number of studies on changes in food bacterial ecology due to food processing is still limited, with studies on the effects of food processing on the human gut microbiota being more common [243, 244]. The most classical food processing methods, such as thermal and chemical processing or fermentation, as well as the non-thermal methods (e.g., high-pressure, pulsed electric field, ultraviolet radiation, cold plasma, ozonation, ultrasound, membrane filtration), promote a modulation of the native bacterial communities [245–248]. This modulation of the bacterial communities due to the selective or stochastic removal of some of the native bacteria will affect the bacterial ecology of the product. The same can happen when external microbiota or antimicrobials are added to the food product, as is done with biopreservation methods [249]. These modulations of the native bacterial communities may or may not be beneficial. Removal of foodborne bacteria and increasing the abundance of probiotic bacteria are perhaps the most studied changes. However, the use of methods with selective effect may favor the survival of the most fitted or well adapted bacteria, including antibiotic resistant bacteria known to occur in food products [250–252]. Given the global health concerns about the rise of antibiotic resistant bacteria, the role of food processing in the spread and control of these bacteria deserves the full attention of the scientific community. Understanding and optimizing the effects of food processing on the microbiota of food products is essential to ensure the safety, nutritional quality, and health benefits of food.

Interaction of the secondary metabolites with macromolecules in fruit and vegetable processing

The fruit and vegetable markets are constantly changing and seeking for new opportunities, in particular considering their capacity to provide nutrients and other chemicals required for human health. Unfortunately, the production of these foods is seasonal and usually perishable, making their processing necessary to increase shelf life [253]. The perceived extent and purpose of different processing techniques of edible foods follows the NOVA classification: unprocessed or minimally processed foods, processed culinary ingredients, processed foods, and ultra-processed groups. Independent from the type of process, there is always the possibility that the natural characteristics of the ingredients could be altered or lost through different mechanisms. One mechanism of special interests is the interaction between specialized metabolites, formerly known as secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites are molecules derived from primary metabolites by biochemical transformation with macromolecules, including proteins, polysaccharides and lipids, which are building blocks of the structure and function of plant cells. The result of this chemical interaction may vary, but it likely leads to physicochemical, organoleptic, texture or functional changes of fruits and vegetables [254]. This section describes some of those interactions, both covalent and noncovalent, emphasizing on their actors and how the products change the nature of the processed fruit or vegetable.

Thermal or non-thermal processing has been associated with carotenoid degradation in vegetables. In fact, drying may result in 10–20% loss of carotenoids [255]. However, lipids may increase the bioavailability of carotenoids. As heating can break down cell walls, released carotenoids are able to mix with available or added lipids, improving absorption. Thus, this carotenoid-lipid interaction has been suggested as the most crucial event in bioavailability of carotenoids [256].

Cold plasma treatment is a novel non-thermal technology that helps maintaining the freshness and quality of fruits products without using chemicals [257]. The cold plasma, similar to ionized gas but at near room temperature, is generated by applying energy to a gas, creating a mixture of ions, electrons, and neutral particles. The reactive oxygen species induced during this approach have been linked to oxidation of phenolic compounds [258] leading to the formation of quinones, unstable intermediates that in turn can bind covalently to proteins to generate Lys/Cys/Arg-derived adducts [259], altering both the physicochemical and immunological characteristics of food proteins [260].

One of the most common chemical transformations that occurs during heating treatment of fruits is the Maillard reaction or non-enzymatic glycation, also known as the carbonyl ammonia reaction. It occurs by covalent interactions between carbonyl compounds, such as reducing sugars, unsaturated fatty acids, aldehydes and ketones, and amino chemicals, involving free amino groups of amino acids, peptides and proteins [261]. These chemical products serve for improvements in color, flavor, taste, as well as in antioxidant properties [262]. Unfortunately, industrial drying methods that include heating, such as hot-air and microwave-relate processes, in addition to produce high degrees of Maillard reaction, also generates advanced glycation end-products, proteins or lipids modified by covalent binding to sugars and their derivatives, such as glyceraldehyde, glycolaldehyde, methylglyoxal and acetaldehyde, that register several toxicity concerns [263].

Although there is a number of analytical techniques useful to study the formation of interactions between secondary metabolites and macromolecules, proteomics approaches have the capacity to provide insights in the nature of the derivatives formed, such as glycated proteins [264]. The understanding of these chemical processes will provide the basis for the production of functional fruit- and vegetable-derived products.

Antibiofilm capacity of natural compounds

The World Health Organization recently published the bacterial priority pathogens list containing the most dangerous microorganisms for human health (https://www.who.int/news/item/27-02-2017-who-publishes-list-of-bacteria-for-which-new-antibiotics-are-urgently-needed). The list was divided into three main groups: 1) the “critical group” made up of pathogens with the highest warning to public health due to limited treatment options, high disease concern (mortality and morbidity), increasing trend in antibiotic bacterial resistance (ABR), and global mechanisms of resistance or strains in specific populations or geographical areas; 2) the “high-group” contains ABR pathogens significantly challenging to treat, with an increasing trend in resistance, high difficulty of prevention, high transmissibility and few potential treatments; 3) the so-called “medium group” ABR includes bacterial pathogens associated with moderate difficulty for treatment, and moderate trends in resistance, potentially representing a severe problem for some populations and specific geographical areas.

Given the increased antibiotic resistance developed over the years by microorganisms, the scientific world is in a frantic search for new substances, even those of natural origin, which, through their biochemical composition in terms of primary and specialized metabolites (proteins/peptides, enzymes, polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins, volatile component), can somehow make up for the weakness of conventional antibiotics, and capable of helping science also by limiting, or even blocking, bacterial virulence. Moreover, naturally sourced and formulated products are perceived to be generally safe compared to synthetic drugs, with fewer and short-term side effects [265]. As a result, there is growing awareness and acceptance of all-natural products. The mechanisms through which these substances, molecules or cocktails of natural molecules, act against pathogens can be multiple. They, for example, can act by modifying some properties of bacteria, such as its hemolytic activity (which is an essential parameter for some bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa); they can also modify the hydrophobicity of the bacterial cells, thus affecting its capability to adhere to the human cells (i.e., the gut cells, or the lung cells), or block the quorum-sensing mechanism of bacterial cell-cell communication [266]. Some studies reported an important contribution of such compounds in inhibiting, or at least in reducing, the capacity of pathogens in forming the so-called biofilm, complex communities of microorganisms, including bacteria, growing on surfaces and embedded in a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances; or act when this is mature and lead to genotypic and phenotypic modification of the bacterial cell/community which determine an increase in the bacterial virulence. Generally, the study of bacterial biofilm is done through now standardized analytical techniques, which can evaluate whether natural substances are able to limit bacterial adhesion processes, or mature biofilms, and whether they have the capacity to influence microbial metabolism, limiting those processes of transformation that lead to an increase in virulence. The crystal violet assay is commonly employed to assess the effects of extracts or molecules on biofilm formation. Additionally, the MTT colorimetric method [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] can be particularly useful for studying how potential anti-biofilm agents influence the metabolism of planktonic cells trapped within the biofilm environment. The development of new anti-biofilm agents requires a comprehensive systems-level understanding of these mechanisms, as well as the discovery of new mechanisms. First step of study assumes in vitro biofilm model that should provide a method of assessing the relative activity of a group of compounds and relating these to other compounds in the literature and assess the probability that specific compounds will work against biofilms in a relevant circumstance. The study can be supported by -omics approaches such as transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics, and in silico techniques, which can also be integrated to better understand biofilm biology [265, 267]. The need for increasingly rapid results has led to the use of new techniques for the microbiological sector. Through the so-called biofilm electrostatic test (BET) it is possible to reproduce the ability of bacteria to form biofilms through electrostatic interactions with a pyroelectrified carrier. The system can produce various types of biofilms in a much shorter incubation time (2 hours). Therefore, due to its speed, simplicity, and cost-effectiveness, it is well suited for rapid and easy implementation in a microbiology laboratory [268].

Natural compounds, as well as synthetic drugs, should be tested in biologically relevant biofilm models to increase the likelihood that these candidate agents selected from in silico approaches are effective in humans.

Numerous reviews discussed the harmful effects of biofilm formation in the food industry, highlighting how biofilms contribute to the presence of spoilage microorganisms and foodborne pathogens. These contaminations are often associated with the presence of biofilms in processing facilities. Waste materials from the agri-food industry can play an important role in combating microbial biofilms and offer valuable benefits in preventing or reducing infections and biofilm formation, even on food surfaces. For instance, fruit peels, like those from Citrus fruits, which are high in polyphenols and precious oils, have shown strong antibiofilm properties [269, 270].

The study of bacterial biofilms has been supported by the possibility of using cultured and differentiated human organoids (categorized into three primary forms: air-liquid interface (ALI) models, 3D spheroid organoids, and organoid-on-a-chip models [271]) capable of recapitulating, to a large extent, the histological and physiological characteristics of the native organs, for instance, the native human mucociliary epithelium, to monitor P. aeruginosa biofilm [272] or human epidermis organoid model to study the S. aureus biofilm [273]. The use of organoids is still rarely applied to studying natural compounds [274], but their versatility will be certainly seen a huge interest for new future studies on the antibiofilm properties of natural compounds.

Smart packaging and the potential effects of the introduction of recycled plastics in food packaging

Food packaging is one of the main issues to consider to stabilize a food product, since packaging is a requirement to maintain quality and safety of products subjected to food processing technologies. In most of these technologies, the package is designed to provide a passive barrier that limits the negative interaction of the external environment on food, including gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide), vapours (humidity, aromas or odours), micro- and macro-organisms, radiations, etc. Furthermore, packages should be inert to the food, and should not release substances onto nor adsorb components from the food that may affect its quality and/or safety.

Food packaging science and technology has evolved much as a response of the needs of both industry and consumer demands. At present, a novel emerging technology is being researched and slowly implemented in the industry of packaging converters and in the food industry. Smart packaging technologies involving active and intelligent packaging technologies are at the forefront of the present innovations. Another issue of high relevance is the environmental impact of packaging, especially important in flexible packaging with plastic materials, which is being addressed by the preparation of biodegradable materials or by the introduction of recycled materials.

Bioactive compounds and their bioaccessibility and bioavailability

Bioaccessibility and bioavailability: concepts and measurements

Currently, more than ever, consumers, particularly elderly people, are aware of health benefits of phytochemicals in plant-based diets including polyphenols, vitamins, proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, carotenoids, phytosterols, among others, due to their bioactive properties associated to preventive effects against certain diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. The demand is for foods with potential health benefits or with health claims, rather than only tasty or aromatic foods, or processed foods subjected to industrial and/or domestic processing. Nevertheless, although a great number of bioactive compounds can be found in foods and several other natural sources, only a small proportion will be absorbed, metabolized, and used to exert their biological function. However, to exert their beneficial effects, it is essential that the bioactive compounds are accessible to be used and/or stored in the body. For this reason, it is important to take into consideration both the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive constituents [287].

Despite being different, the concepts of bioaccessibility and bioavailability, are often cause of confusion. The bioaccessibility represents the fraction of a compound released from the food matrix during digestion and becoming available for absorption into the intestinal lumen and reaching the blood stream to be delivered to the target tissue. This is the mandatory condition for bioavailability and bioactivity (Figure 3).

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Figure 3. 

Schematic presentation of the different steps included in bioavailability and bioaccessibility

Several parameters and physiological conditions can influence the extent of bioactive compounds bioaccessibility including the composition of food matrix in terms of nutrients, particle size, food processing (thermal vs non-thermal processing), the digestive enzymes which determine the extent of liberation of bioactive compounds from food matrix, and the pH conditions through the digestive system. On the other hand, the bioavailability as a measure of the extent of absorption and utilization of bioactive compounds by the human body [288], in its active form and in appropriate concentration, is influenced by the chemical nature of the compounds in terms of lipophilicity and hydrophilicity, the stereochemistry and molecular structure (size and complexity) of the compound which can affect the capacity to pass through the intestinal mucosal barrier, by the presence of other substances/nutrients that can enhance or inhibit the extension of absorption, in addition to individual unmodifiable physiological factors such as gender, age, genetics, gut microbiome and health status [289]. In this context, the bioavailability is crucial to their potential beneficial effects on human health.

Several in vivo (usually carried out in animals or humans) and in vitro methodologies have been developed for analysing the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive compounds. Although the in vivo studies provide relevant data related to bioavailability and high scientific evidence, they present several limitations in terms of experimental design, and ethical constraints, they are normally long-term studies, in addition to difficulties in data interpretation. On the other hand, the in vitro studies are usually employed as cost-effective, fast and reproducible step in analysing the bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds, however it does not mimic the in vivo processes. Moreover, ex vivo, and in situ methodologies are also different models that allow to study bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive compounds.

New trends and challenges in the interaction of nutraceuticals with biological systems and last advances in our understanding of the mechanisms behind their health benefits

Nutraceuticals can be defined as biologically active components obtained from food or other natural sources that, when delivered in a non-food matrix, provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Nonetheless, these products lack an official and generally accepted definition, and are usually marketed as dietary supplements, co-existing in a vague zone between pharmaceuticals and food [329]. Many nutraceuticals lack sufficient scientific evidence regarding their efficacy and safety. Consequently, recent trends and challenges in this field focus on understanding their interactions with biological systems and the mechanisms behind their health benefits.

One major trend is the development of advanced delivery systems, particularly nanotechnology-based approaches, to improve the bioavailability and efficacy of nutraceuticals [330, 331]. Another significant area of research involves the use of computational tools and chemoinformatics to design and develop next-generation nutraceuticals. These methods enable researchers to better understand the chemical interactions and biological pathways involved, leading to more effective and targeted nutraceutical formulations [330].

The assessment of the effects and mechanisms of action of bioactive compounds is difficult to address in humans owing to their cost, complexity and ethical constraints. Animal models can be used for a comprehensive evaluation of their effects, however, experiments in mice and other mammals are expensive and time consuming and are also subject to ethical limitations. In this respect, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) has emerged as an amenable platform to be used as an animal in vivo model. This non-pathogenic worm possesses a series of convenient features, such as small size, short life cycle, transparent body, easy handling, and low maintenance and propagation costs. As an invertebrate, there are no ethical constraints on its experimental usage. Its fully sequenced genome (9.7 × 10⁷ bps, ~19,000 genes) shows more than 60% homology with humans. Information about gene functions is freely available through WormBase (https://wormbase.org/#012-34-5), and many relevant metabolic pathways are conserved between C. elegans and humans, including those involved in processes such as aging, metabolism, apoptosis, cell signalling, and cell cycle. There is also a wide array of loss-of-function mutants and transgenic strains containing reporter gene fusions available for purchase, and genetic manipulation is possible through biotechnological technologies such as RNA interference knockdown, CRISPR-Cas9 editing, and auxin-inducible degron technology, allowing forward and reverse genetic screening.

Recently, this organism has been used for the discovery and efficient evaluation of bioactive compounds, elucidation of mechanisms of action, and identification of biological targets. It also serves as a platform for initial activity screening to obtain preliminary information, leading to more documented and cost-effective late preclinical developments in mammal models. A significant number of articles have been published over the last two decades using C. elegans to assess food components in modulating physiopathological processes such as aging, oxidative stress, inflammation, fat metabolism and deposition, and neurodegeneration [332, 333].

The role of the gut microbiota in the bioavailability and effects of food components is another hot topic in current research. Metabolism by the gut microbiota appears to be a key factor in explaining the large inter-individual variability in the biological response to bioactives. It is known that the composition and functionality of the microbiota vary among individuals, which has led to the definition of particular ‘metabotypes’ regarding gut metabolism capacity and its further influence on the effects of food components in the organism, as demonstrated for compounds such as isoflavones, lignans, and ellagitannins. The main factors driving the prevalence of metabotypes among populations are unclear, although age, sex, background diet, and disease state are likely to have an influence [334]. Different methodological approaches have been used to study the interplay between diet and gut microbiota. Gastrointestinal simulation can help identify microbial metabolites and define the microbial communities involved in the metabolism of food components. Animal models may be useful for relating bioactivity at the systemic level with the composition or functionality of the microbiota. Human nutritional intervention trials help examine the determinants and distribution of metabotypes and allow for a more holistic approach to assessing the impact of bioactives on disease-related biomarkers [335].

Overall, the integration of nanotechnology, computational methods, and gut microbiome research is paving the way for innovative nutraceutical products with enhanced health benefits and more precise therapeutic applications. However, challenges remain, particularly in ensuring the safety and efficacy of these advanced delivery systems and understanding the complex interactions within biological systems [329–331, 335].

Foodomics and NMR spectroscopy to better define food matrix impact on the bioaccessibility of nutrients and bioactive compounds

Health can be represented as an optimal status point in a multidimensional space whose dimensions may coincide with the individual oxidative, inflammatory, and metabolic profiles, together with other pathophysiological parameters [335]. Many cofactors contribute to orienting movements in this space and, among the nutritional ones, the intake of an effective dose of the bioactive components present in the diet is crucial. In this context, the food matrix effect acquires a primary role, since the structure of a food, even with the same chemical composition, can influence the intake and bioavailability of nutrients and other bioactive components, leading to large differences in the biological impact. In fact, epidemiological studies have been undertaken recently, which highlight the harmful effects of food processing when pushed to extreme levels, such as completely bringing unstructured food [336]. Consequently, food consumption requires an objective coding system for classification, including food structure as a further descriptor of quality. So far, the classification has mostly grouped raw foods, i.e., not cooked or processed, into more than thirty different categories based on compositional data. It is clear now, how far this classification is from the actual descriptive need for the diet, and nutritional tables, in addition to listing the various nutrients, should provide structural and rheological information. This need is increasingly relevant, since the food industry is trying to generate new, more sustainable foods, with the intention of replacing traditional, higher impact food with something from alternative sources, and claiming to imitate sensorial properties and bioavailability of nutrients [337]. An emblematic case is that of vegetable burgers prepared by extrusion of vegetable or fungal proteins. For this reason, any technology capable of capturing the structure of the matrix is ​​fundamental for any future food classification. Lately, there have been attempts to classify foods by considering the effects of processing on the original matrix structure, e.g., the NOVA system mentioned in section Interaction of the secondary metabolites with macromolecules in fruit and vegetable processing. However, the attempt has stopped at the level of the number of processing steps and the list of additives included in the formulation, often used to ensure a texture acceptable to the consumer [338]. The limitation of the NOVA system pays the price of the great difficulty in using comprehensible and classifiable descriptors to characterize the matrix structure. With these purposes, NMR spectroscopy can be of great help, when used within the foodomics approach, being able to go well beyond other analytical techniques, limited to the description of the mixture as a compositional table. In fact, having the power to observe matter in its functional entirety, the NMR analysis can be used to extract supramolecular information, define anisotropy parameters of heterogeneous mixtures, and study the flows of substances between the compartments that characterize the complex systems found in many foods [339]. MALDI MS imaging also has great potential in food analysis to provide relevant spatial information on the distributions of a wide range of compound classes in different matrices, including fresh and processed foods. To this end, machine learning tools for MS data analysis to study the penetration level of analytes into depth from irregular surfaces are of great benefit [340].

A perspective from Europe about One-Health: biodiversity, nutrition and human health

Chronic diseases are the major public health problems in Western countries, and in addition thoroughly undermining the sustainability of health care systems. These diseases are responsible for 92% of all deaths in Europe, with cardiovascular diseases (41%) and cancer (28%) being the major causes [350]. Improved care, combined with a growing aging population, places significant managerial and economic pressures on National Health Systems. In particular, the increasing prevalence of patients with multiple conditions (one-third of the adult population and more than two-thirds of the elderly population) poses multiple challenges, including the establishment of Treatment Guidelines for these patients, as well as the identification of outcome parameters that consider clinical complexity. A focused approach to complexity will allow optimization of therapeutic proposals, thus moving into a scenario of responsive and personalized medicine capable of improving the cost-effectiveness of interventions [351].

Natural bioactive compounds can be: 1) essential for human health due to their multiple biological effects, such as reduction of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) risk factors, including cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities; 2) useful as food additives to maintain food quality, safety and stability and to improve shell life, palatability and attractiveness; 3) useful as food supplements or nutraceuticals to correct nutritional deficiencies, maintain adequate nutrient and macro and micronutrient intake, support physiological functions or prevent risk factors affecting health [352].

A better understanding of the links between biodiversity, health and disease represents an important opportunity for policy development and can improve our understanding of how they are interconnected: health-focused measures influence biodiversity and conservation measures influence health.

Diverse ecosystems are rich in a variety of plant species, which serve as sources for potential pharmaceutical compounds [353]. For instance, the periwinkle plant (Catharanthus roseus), native to Madagascar, has provided key alkaloids used in cancer treatments like vincristine and vinblastine [354]. Recent studies discuss [355, 356] the importance of biodiversity in the discovery of medicinal compounds. The decline in biodiversity can limit access to these valuable resources, particularly for indigenous and local communities that rely on traditional medicine for health care. When plant species disappear due to habitat destruction, climate change, or overharvesting, communities may lose vital medicinal knowledge and practices [357]. Biodiversity is crucial for food plants, impacting food security, nutrition, and resilience in agricultural systems. By supporting a diverse range of food plants, we can enhance nutrition, improve agricultural practices, and ensure food security in the face of environmental challenges. Protecting and promoting biodiversity in food crops is vital for a sustainable future [358]. Medicinal and food plants often attract a variety of pollinators, such as bees and butterflies. These pollinators are essential for the reproduction of many plants, including those that are crucial for food security. By supporting pollinator populations, medicinal plants help maintain the health of entire ecosystems [359].

The breadth and complexity of these relationships emphasize the need for an integrative, multidisciplinary and systemic approach to the health of people, livestock and wildlife in the context of the ecosystem. Loss of biodiversity, habitat fragmentation and the loss of natural environments threaten the full range of life-supporting services provided by ecosystems at all levels of biodiversity, including species, genetic and ecosystem diversity [360]. The disruption of ecosystem services has direct and indirect implications for public health, which are likely to exacerbate existing health inequities, whether through exposure to environmental hazards or through the loss of livelihoods. The concept of ‘One Health’ now represents a strategic model for the development of mutually beneficial policies and interventions between human health and biodiversity [361].

The One Health holistic vision, or health model based on the integration of different disciplines, is both ancient and current. It is based on the recognition that human health, animal health and ecosystem health are interlinked inseparably. It is officially recognized by the European Commission and all international organizations as a relevant strategy in all areas that benefit from collaboration between different disciplines (physicians, botanists, nutritionists, veterinarians, environmentalists, economists, sociologists, etc.) [362].

All of this, however, is struggling to happen, the One Health concept has been significantly undermined, often due to economic interests that prioritize short-term profits over the long-term interconnected health of humans, animals, and ecosystems, as recently highlighted by Mumford et al. [361]. This has led to policies and practices that have neglected the interconnectedness of human, animal and environmental health. For instance, industrial farming can promote zoonotic diseases, while environmental degradation can exacerbate health issues [363]. Addressing these challenges requires a holistic approach that considers the broader implications of our choices, fostering collaboration among sectors to promote sustainable practices that prioritize overall well-being. The One Health approach can significantly benefit from “high throughput” technologies found in -omic sciences, such as genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and transcriptomics. These technologies enable large-scale data collection and analysis, providing insights into complex biological systems and play a crucial role within the One Health framework by providing comprehensive data that links human, animal, and environmental health, improving the ability to understand and address health problems holistically, opening the way for more effective prevention and intervention strategies. Researchers could better predict and mitigate health risks, ultimately leading to more effective disease prevention and control strategies. This holistic approach fosters collaboration across disciplines, encouraging a comprehensive understanding of health that considers all interconnected factors. As an example, the evolution of measurement and complex data integration systems, explored and adapted to research activities in the field of oncology (where it is now possible to discern in the enormous genetic and epigenetic heterogeneity of neoplastic cells some patterns of information that are significant and therefore useful for the purposes of personalized therapies), now allows their adoption in other areas, such as chronic NCDs. The goal is to integrate experimental evidence (genome, transcriptome, proteome, metabolome, exposome, etc.) with clinical-epidemiological evidence to generate predictive models that can, down to the level of the individual patient, serve as stratifies for optimizing prevention, diagnosis and treatment [364].

Biochemical (and physiological) analysis of cell behavior, read through a quantitative analysis of the metabolic asset, allows the acquisition of information relevant to understanding the deregulatory events that insist on the cell in pathological states.

NMR and MS based -omics technologies, (metabolomics, proteomics and lipidomics) have enabled the molecular level systems biology investigation of organisms in unprecedented detail [365, 366]. These methods have proven useful in identifying biomarkers that, when combined with more strictly clinical ones, could significantly increase the levels of accuracy and specificity of the same, both in the diagnostic field and in the follow-up of specific treatments. These -omics technologies allow the evaluation of complex biological systems, as well as the mechanisms of bioactive food compounds or the nutritional status and the exposures to environmental stressors that affect them [367, 368] (Figure 4).

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Figure 4. 

Interactions between multiomics and the exposome in humans and animals. EWAS: exposome-wide association study; GWAS: genome-wide association study; MWAS: microbiome-wide association study (reproduced with permission from Gao [368], Environmental Science & Technology, 2021, 55, 2790–2799; Figure 4; © 2021 American Chemical Society)

Foodomics is an emerging field that focuses on the comprehensive study of food and its components, particularly how they interact with the gut microbiome and influence health [369]. Foodomics analyzes the nutritional and bioactive components of food, including vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and other compounds that may influence gut microbiota that plays a critical role in metabolizing food components, influencing nutrient absorption, and producing metabolites that can affect health [204]. Foodomics helps identifying how specific foods or dietary patterns shape microbial communities, promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria, which in turn produce metabolites like short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) that have anti-inflammatory and health-promoting effects. Understanding these interactions is key to developing dietary recommendations and health outcomes (such as obesity, diabetes, and gastrointestinal diseases). The insights gained from foodomics can lead to personalized dietary recommendations and nutritional protocols based on individual microbiome profiles, promoting better health outcomes tailored to specific needs [370, 371]. The One Health approach and foodomics are complementary fields that enhance our understanding of health by recognizing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, particularly in the context of food systems. By integrating foodomics within the One Health framework, we can better understand the complex relationships between diet, health, and the environment, leading to more effective public health strategies and sustainable food systems.

A perspective from China about One-Health: biodiversity, nutrition and human health

The concept of One Health merges biodiversity, food and human health. Biodiversity on Earth ensures the quality and quantity of food, after which, the food impact human health greatly [372]. This holistic approach underscores the profound impact of biodiversity loss on food systems and consequently on human health, presenting both challenges and opportunities for future sustainability.

Biodiversity is crucial for maintaining resilient ecosystems and sustainable food production systems [373]. Agricultural biodiversity is fundamental for ensuring food security in the face of changing environmental conditions and evolving dietary needs. Diverse ecosystems provide essential services such as pollination, pest control, and nutrient cycling. Biodiversity loss, driven by human activities such as habitat destruction, climate change, and pollution, poses a critical threat to global food security [374]. The diversity of crops, livestock, marine and freshwater supports agricultural resilience and productivity, while monoculture systems and overexploitation of natural resources diminish genetic diversity and ecosystem health, increasing vulnerability to crop failures, pests, and diseases. The biodiversity loss reduces dietary diversity, exacerbating malnutrition and diet-related health issues, particularly in communities reliant on diverse local foods. Addressing these challenges needs comprehensive strategies that integrate biodiversity conservation with sustainable agricultural practices and policies, ensuring resilient food systems capable of meeting future global food demands while preserving ecological integrity and human well-being [375, 376].

Healthy ecosystems provide a myriad of services that are essential for human health and well-being. These ecosystem services include clean air and water, regulation of climate and disease, and cultural and aesthetic benefits. Biodiversity loss disrupts these services, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases, air pollution-related illnesses, and exposure to infectious diseases. Furthermore, biodiversity loss can impact the availability and nutritional quality of food.

The link between biodiversity loss and human health is increasingly recognized in scientific research. Loss of biodiversity can contribute to the rise and spread of zoonotic diseases, which are infections transmitted between animals and humans. The destruction of natural habitats and increased human-wildlife interactions create opportunities for pathogens to spill over from wildlife reservoirs to human populations. Moreover, biodiversity loss can have indirect effects on human health through changes in food availability and nutritional quality. Reduced agricultural biodiversity may limit dietary diversity, leading to deficiencies in essential nutrients and contributing to diet-related diseases such as obesity and malnutrition.

A perspective from Latin America about One-Health: biodiversity, nutrition and human health

In Latin America, the One Health approach is particularly relevant due to the region’s rich biodiversity, diverse food systems, and significant health challenges. This continent is home to a wide variety of native crops and animal species, which play a crucial role in local diets. Promoting the use of these biodiverse food sources can enhance nutrition and food security. Another very relevant aspect is related to traditional knowledge: indigenous and local communities often possess traditional knowledge about sustainable food practices and medicinal plants. Integrating this knowledge into health and nutrition strategies can improve health outcomes and preserve cultural heritage. Many Latin American countries are experiencing a nutrition transition, with increasing rates of obesity and NCDs [377]. One example is the importance that ancient crops still play in feeding populations and local development. These traditional crops contribute to agricultural biodiversity, which is essential for the resilience and sustainability of ecosystems. They are an integral part of the cultural identity and culinary traditions of many Latin American communities. Reviving and promoting these crops can help addressing modern nutritional challenges, such as obesity and malnutrition, by providing diverse and nutrient-rich food options [378, 379]. A One Health approach can address these issues by promoting local, nutrient-dense foods and sustainable agricultural practices. By prioritizing sustainable land and water management, Latin America can create a more resilient food system that supports both biodiversity and the health of its populations. This holistic approach is essential for tackling the intertwined challenges of food security, environmental degradation, and public health. This concept should also increasingly be kept in mind in view of the tropical deforestation and agricultural development in Latin America are closely intertwined issues that pose significant challenges for the environment, biodiversity, and local communities. One of the primary drivers of tropical deforestation is the expansion of agriculture, particularly for commodities like soy, palm oil, coffee, sugarcane and cotton. The demand for these commodities often comes from global markets, creating a complex challenge for sustainability. Addressing the impacts of these industries requires coordinated efforts involving government regulation, sustainable agricultural practices, and consumer awareness to promote responsible sourcing and conservation. These activities often lead to the clearing of vast areas of rainforest. The study by Pendrill et al. [380] found that, between 2011 and 2015, the tropics lost from 6.4 to 8.8 million hectares of forest per year to agricultural land [380]. Foodomics has the potential to significantly enhance the understanding of food systems in Latin America, promoting better health outcomes and sustainable practices. By integrating traditional knowledge with modern scientific techniques, foodomics can help preserve biodiversity, improve nutrition, and create economic opportunities, ultimately leading to healthier communities and a more resilient food system.