Three-dimensional (3D) and four-dimensional (4D) printing have emerged as the next-generation fabrication technologies, covering a broad spectrum of areas, including construction, medicine, transportation, and textiles. 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing (AM), allows the fabrication of complex structures with high precision via a layer-by-layer addition of various materials. On the other hand, 4D printing technology enables printing smart materials that can alter their shape, properties, and functions upon a stimulus, such as solvent, radiation, heat, pH, magnetism, current, pressure, and relative humidity (RH). Myriad of biomedical materials (BMMs) currently serve in many biomedical engineering fields aiding patients’ needs and expanding their life-span. 3D printing of BMMs provides geometries that are impossible via conventional processing techniques, while 4D printing yields dynamic BMMs, which are intended to be in long-term contact with biological systems owing to their time-dependent stimuli responsiveness. This review comprehensively covers the most recent technological advances in 3D and 4D printing towards fabricating BMMs for tissue engineering, drug delivery, surgical and diagnostic tools, and implants and prosthetics. In addition, the challenges and gaps of 3D and 4D printed BMMs, along with their future outlook, are also extensively discussed. The current review also addresses the scarcity in the literature on the composition, properties, and performances of 3D and 4D printed BMMs in medical applications and their pros and cons. Moreover, the content presented would be immensely beneficial for material scientists, chemists, and engineers engaged in AM manufacturing and clinicians in the biomedical field.

The integration of three-dimensional (3D) printing techniques into the domains of biomedical research and personalized medicine highlights the evolving paradigm shifts within contemporary healthcare. This technological advancement signifies potential breakthroughs in patient-specific therapeutic interventions and innovations. This systematic review offers a critical assessment of the existing literature, elucidating the present status, inherent challenges, and prospective avenues of 3D printing in augmenting biomedical applications and formulating tailored medical strategies. Based on an exhaustive literature analysis comprising empirical studies, case studies, and extensive reviews from the past decade, pivotal sectors including tissue engineering, prosthetic development, drug delivery systems, and customized medical apparatuses are delineated. The advent of 3D printing provides precision in the fabrication of patient-centric implants, bio-structures, and devices, thereby mitigating associated risks. Concurrently, it facilitates the ideation of individualized drug delivery paradigms to optimize therapeutic outcomes. Notwithstanding these advancements, issues concerning material biocompatibility, regulatory compliance, and the economic implications of avant-garde printing techniques persist. To fully harness the transformative potential of 3D printing in healthcare, collaborative endeavors amongst academicians, clinicians, industrial entities, and regulatory bodies are paramount. With continued research and innovation, 3D printing is poised to redefine the trajectories of biomedical science and patient-centric care. The paper aims to justify the research objective of whether to what extent the integration of 3D printing technology in biomedicine enhances patient-specific treatment and contributes to improved healthcare outcomes.

Type 1 diabetes is a chronic condition that results from the destruction of insulin-producing β-cells in the pancreas. Current treatments for type 1 diabetes, such as insulin therapy and pancreatic islet transplantation, have several limitations and, hence not quite effective in the long run. As current therapy methods fail to slow disease development, novel strategies such as the development of a bioartificial pancreas are being seriously considered. Over the last decade, research has focused on tissue engineering, which aids in the design of biological alternatives for the repair and replacement of non-functional or damaged organs. Three dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology which employs 3D printing technology to generate 3D tissue-like structures from biomaterials and cells, offers a promising solution for the treatment of type 1 diabetes by providing the ability to generate functional endocrine pancreatic tissue. Bioprinted structures are therefore an important aspect of tissue engineering because they have been found to replicate the native extracellular matrix, promoting cell survival and proliferation. In this review, recent developments in 3D bioprinting of endocrine pancreas for the treatment of type 1 diabetes particularly focussing on the choice of cells, biomaterials, growth factors, and essential considerations have been discussed in detail. Additionally, the key challenges and perspectives towards recapitulation of the pancreatic function of the pancreatic organ engineering technologies have also been discussed.

The development of patient-specific prosthetics, medication administration, the manufacture of tissues and organs, and surgical planning have all benefited significantly from the use of three-dimensional (3D) printing during the past few decades. The enthusiasm for customized healthcare has increased because the United States of America launched its Precision Medicine Initiative in 2015. In a nutshell, the phrase “personalized medicine” refers to medical care that is tailored to the patient. Nevertheless, the biomedical materials utilized in 3D printing are often stable and can’t react or be adaptive and intelligent in the body’s interior environment. Ex-situ fabrication of these substances, which includes printing on a flat substrate before releasing it onto the target surface, may cause a discrepancy between the printed portion and the target areas. The 3D printing is one method that might be used to provide customized treatment. The four-dimensional (4D) printing is developed while employing components that can be tweaked with stimulation. Several researchers have been looking at a new area recently that blends medicines with 3D and 4D printing. The development of 4D printing overcomes a number of these issues and creates a promising future for the biomedical industry. Smart materials that have been pre-programmed can be used in 4D printing to create structures that react interactively to outside stimuli. Despite these benefits, dynamic materials created using 4D technology remain in their development. As a result, several ideas for pharmaceutical products and formulas that may be customized and printed have emerged. Furthermore, Spritam®, the first medicine produced by 3D printing, has indeed reached a medical facility. This paper offers a summary of several 3D and 4D printing technologies and how they are used in the pharmaceutical industry for customized medicine and drug delivery systems.